Adaptive Evolution and Symbiotic Mechanism of Wheat Rhizosphere

Microbial Community under Saline-Alkali Environment

Zhicheng Xing

College of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, West Midlands, U.K.

Keywords: Wheat Rhizosphere Microbiome, Saline-Alkali Stress, Microbial Adaptation.

Abstract: Soil salinization threatens worldwide wheat production by inhibiting plant growth and changing rhizosphere

microbial populations. Yet global food demand is increasing and improving wheat tolerance to salinity stress

is critical for agricultural sustainability. This paper explores the adaptive evolution and symbiotic mechanisms

of these microorganisms in saline-alkali environments. The results suggest that the dynamic and adaptive

characterization of wheat inter-root microbial communities provides interesting avenues for improving salt

tolerance. Salinity stress affects microbial composition, promoting salt-tolerant taxa such as Bacillus and

Pseudomonas. These microorganisms increase wheat resistance via biofilm formation, osmoprotection, and

enhanced ion homeostasis. Furthermore, beneficial bacteria including Ascomycetes, Actinobacteria, Thick-

walled Bacteria, and Mycobacteria also promote food cycling, enhance antioxidant defenses, and reduce salt-

induced stress. New advances in high-throughput sequencing, transcriptomics and metabolomics have

revealed the molecular processes that make these relationships possible. The paper demonstrates the efficacy

of microbial inoculants in promoting wheat development in saline soils. Incorporating these insights into

agricultural methods may enhance crop sustainability and food security.

1 INTRODUCTION

Soil salinization is a critical global issue, affecting

nearly 20% of irrigated farmland and significantly

reducing crop productivity (FAO, 2021). High salt

concentrations and alkaline pH disrupt soil structure,

hinder nutrient availability, and impose osmotic and

ion toxicity stress on plants (Yang et al., 2023).

Wheat (Triticum aestivum), a major staple crop, is

particularly vulnerable, experiencing reduced growth,

lower biomass, and yield losses in saline-alkali soils

(Li et al., 2024). Given the increasing global food

demand, improving wheat tolerance to salinity stress

is essential for agricultural sustainability.

Recent studies emphasize the key role of

rhizosphere microorganisms in enhancing plant

resilience under stress. Beneficial bacteria such as

Bacillus, Pseudomonas, and Rhizobium promote salt

tolerance by producing phytohormones, enhancing

ion homeostasis, and reducing oxidative damage

(Zhang et al., 2020). Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi

(AMF) also improve wheat nutrient uptake and

mitigate salt-induced stress (Wang et al., 2024).

High-throughput sequencing has revealed significant

shifts in microbial composition under saline

conditions, favouring stress-tolerant taxa (Zhang et

al., 2025).

In China, studies in the Yellow River Delta and

North China Plain have identified native salt-tolerant

microbial strains that enhance wheat growth and

improve soil fertility (Zhang et al., 2023). Field trials

demonstrate that inoculation with beneficial microbes

increases wheat biomass and yield while reducing

sodium accumulation (Li et al., 2022). However,

variability in microbial communities across

environments complicates the development of

universal bioinoculants (Ren et al., 2023). This study

explores the adaptive evolution and symbiotic

mechanisms of wheat rhizosphere microbes under

saline-alkali stress, contributing to microbiome-based

strategies for sustainable wheat production.

234

Xing, Z.

Adaptive Evolution and Symbiotic Mechanism of Wheat Rhizosphere Microbial Community under Saline-Alkali Environment.

DOI: 10.5220/0014465600004933

Paper published under CC license (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0)

In Proceedings of the 1st International Conference on Biomedical Engineering and Food Science (BEFS 2025), pages 234-240

ISBN: 978-989-758-789-4

2 EFFECTS OF SALINE-ALKALI

ENVIRONMENT ON WHEAT

AND RHIZOSPHERE

MICROBIAL COMMUNITY

2.1 Effects of Saline-Alkali Stress on

Wheat Growth

Because high concentrations of Na⁺ and Cl⁻ disturb

cellular ion homeostasis and metabolic activities,

wheat is quite vulnerable to saline-alkali stress (Zhao

et al., 2020). Experimental studies under saline-alkali

settings have found that treatments with 100–200 mM

NaCl can lower wheat biomass by up to 40% and

lower leaf relative water content by 25–30% (Li et al.,

2022). These ionic imbalances severely reduce

photosynthetic efficiency and induce major oxidative

stress (Li et al., 2022). Wheat responds to these

impacts by encouraging a broad spectrum of

metabolic and physiological actions. With a 60–80%

activity increase, antioxidant enzymes like catalase

(CAT) and superoxide dismutase (SOD) scavenge

reactive oxygen species (ROS). At the molecular

level, relative to sensitive variety, salt-tolerant

cultivars upregulate more than 5000 genes involved

in ion transport, osmotic adjustment, and antioxidant

defense (Zhang et al., 2025).

2.2 Effects of Saline-Alkali

Environment on Rhizosphere

Microbial Community

Furthermore, changing the rhizosphere microbial

community is saline-alkali stress. High-throughput

sequencing studies routinely demonstrate notable

changes in community composition under high-

salinity settings (Zhang et al., 2025). In terms of

dominant lineages and relative abundance,

Ascomycetes accounted for 40–50% of the overall

community, Actinobacteria about 20–30%, the range

of Thick-walled phyla was 10–15%, and the range of

the genus Mycobacterium was 5–10% (Xiao et al.,

2023). In terms of key generators, beneficial genera

typically enriched include Rhizobium, Bacillus and

Pseudomonas, species known for stress reduction,

phytohormone synthesis and nutrient solubility

(Wang et al., 2021).

In addition, wheat rhizosphere microbiome

composition is affected by geographical location and

management approach. East Asian studies, for

example, have found that farms maintained under

organic systems—with higher soil organic matter—

support a more diversified population, with more

Acidobacteria and Verrucomicrobia (Zhang et al.,

2023). Under conventional management, areas might

show a prevalence of fast-growing Proteobacteria.

While organic and conservation methods generate

more Actinobacteria and Bacteroidetes,

Proteobacteria and Firmicutes dominate

conventional systems in the Midwest in North

America (Sagar et al., 2021). Grown under dry and

semi-arid conditions, Australian wheat fields gain

from integrated management techniques that boost

Bacillus and Pseudomonas populations, therefore

enhancing nutrient absorption and decreasing Na⁺/K⁺

ratios (Li et al., 2022).

3 RHIZOSPHERE

MICROORGANISMS'

ADAPTIVE EVOLUTION IN A

SALINE-ALKALINE

ENVIRONMENT

3.1 Dynamic Changes in Microbial

Community Structure

The mobile microbial community in the rhizosphere

of wheat plants changes greatly when they are

exposed to saline-alkali stress. Under conditions like

200 mM NaCl, for example, the Shannon diversity

index usually falls by 20–30%, therefore indicating a

loss of general diversity (Zhang et al., 2020). Still,

taxa fit for salinity start to exhibit more presence.

Network studies reveal that many strongly linked

“hub” species—mostly from Bacillus and

Pseudomonas—are essential for maintaining

community stability. Hence, these species usually

exhibit scale-free features (Hasanuzzaman et al.,

2013). Up to forty percent of the expressed genes in

these communities show involvement in stress

adaptation systems like osmoprotection and

extracellular polymeric substance (EPS) production

(Ansari et al., 2023).

3.2 Adaptive Evolutionary Mechanisms

Microbial adaptation under saline-alkali conditions

occurs through several interrelated mechanisms. The

first is gene regulation and horizontal gene transfer

(HGT), whose mechanism of action is that salt stress

leads to the up-regulation of genes encoding

osmoprotectants, stress-responsive proteins, and ion-

transport proteins. Horizontal gene transfer (HGT)

Adaptive Evolution and Symbiotic Mechanism of Wheat Rhizosphere Microbial Community under Saline-Alkali Environment

235

makes possible the rapid distribution of these

beneficial genes in the microbial community. It has

been shown that HGT events can increase the

frequency of salt-tolerant genes by approximately

50% under high salinity conditions (Zhang et al.,

2020). This genetic interaction improves microbial

resilience, allowing important taxa such as Bacillus

and Pseudomonas to dominate under salt stress

conditions (Wang et al., 2024). Secondly, metabolic

pathways are adjusted, and metabolic studies have

shown that salt-adapted bacteria can greatly increase

the synthesis of suitable solutes, such as alginate and

glycine betaine, by as much as threefold under salt

stress (Hasanuzzaman et al., 2013). Maintaining

cellular osmotic equilibrium and maximizing energy

generation depend on these metabolic changes, which

together increase bacterial viability in saline-alkali

conditions (Ansari et al., 2023). Finally, there is

biofilm and EPS formation. Microorganisms utilize

increased production of extracellular polymeric

substances (EPS) as a main way to stay alive in salty

settings. Under saline stress, EPS production often

rises two- to three-fold, producing a strong biofilm

that shields microbial populations from osmotic

shock (Ashraf et al., 2013). These biofilms also

enable intercellular communication, therefore

supporting the cooperative behavior required for

microbial adaptability (Hassan et al., 2014).

3.3 Evolutionary Adaptation of Key

Symbiotic Microorganisms

Key mutual groups in the wheat rhizosphere have

come up with unique ways to deal with salt stress.

Improving plant tolerance to salinity depends

critically on plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria

(PGPR) including Bacillus, Pseudomonas, and

Brevibacterium. PGPR inoculations have been shown

in saline conditions to raise wheat root biomass by

20–30% and grain production by 15–25% (John et al.,

2011). These bacteria fix atmospheric nitrogen,

solubilize phosphates, generate phytohormones

including indole-3-acetic acid (IAA), and secrete

siderophores that increase iron absorption, hence

improving plant development (Hassan et al., 2014).

Mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) form mutualistic

relationships with plant roots that make it much easier

for the plants to take in water and nutrients. Thirty to

forty percent more AMF colonizing rates in salt-

tolerant wheat cultivars than in salt-sensitive cultivars

(Zhang et al., 2020). Furthermore, AMF alters

antioxidant enzyme activity and stress-related

hormones, therefore strengthening plant resilience to

salt stress (Wang et al., 2024). These adaptive

processes help the rhizosphere microbiomes of wheat

change quickly in response to saline-alkaline stress,

which is good for plant health and growth.

4 SYMBIOTIC MECHANISMS

BETWEEN WHEAT AND

RHIZOSPHERE

MICROORGANISMS

4.1 Microbial Growth Promotion and

Nutrient Cycling

4.1.1 Phytohormone Production

The extensive and varied symbiotic interactions

between wheat and its rhizosphere bacteria greatly

boost plant growth, nutrient absorption, and stress

resistance in saline-alkali conditions. By synthesis of

phytohormones, rhizosphere bacteria greatly boost

plant development. For example, under different

conditions, Bacillus species have been shown to

generate auxin, and indole-3-acetic acid (IAA), in

varied amounts. While some strains have exhibited

production up to 19.0 µg mL⁻¹ under salt stress

(Etesami and Beattie, 2018), others have been

reported to generate IAA levels ranging from 0.7 to

6.0 µg mL⁻¹. Enhanced root development—including

higher root length and biomass in wheat seedlings—

is linked to this bacterial IAA synthesis (Smith et al.,

2018). Furthermore, injected plants can show higher

endogenous auxin levels, which helps to promote

lateral root development and better nutrient

absorption (Vessey, 2003).

4.1.2 Nitrogen Fixation and Phosphate

Solubilization

Several rhizosphere bacteria, including strains of

Rhizobium and Pseudomonas, can fix atmospheric

nitrogen and solubilize inorganic phosphate, hence

improving plant development (FAO, 2021). These

activities raise soluble phosphate availability and

boost nitrogen absorption, hence improving plant

nutrient intake (Yang et al., 2023). More nutrients

mean that plants in saline-alkaline soils can flourish

and generate more (Li et al., 2024).

4.1.3 Iron Uptake via Siderophore

Production

Often in saline-alkaline soils, a high pH limits iron

availability to plants. Beneficial bacteria create

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siderophores—iron-chelating molecules—that

mobilize iron from insoluble complexes, enhancing

its bioavailability (Zhang et al., 2020). Quantitative

investigations reveal that siderophore-producing

bacteria can increase iron absorption by wheat by 20–

25%, thereby reducing iron deficiency and promoting

chlorophyll synthesis and photosynthesis (Wang et

al., 2024).

4.1.4 Extracellular Polymer Production and

Biofilm Formation

Many bacteria in the rhizosphere have a unique

feature in that they produce extracellular polymeric

compounds (EPS). Strong biofilms follow from

increased EPS production, which may rise two to

three-fold under salt stress (Zhang et al., 2020). These

biofilms guard against salt intrusion, enable the plant

and microbial population to exchange nutrients, and

boost water retention.

4.2 Enhancement of Salt Tolerance

4.2.1 Ionic Balance and Osmotic

Adjustment

By modifying the Na⁺/K⁺ ratio, rhizosphere

microorganisms assist wheat in maintaining ionic

balance. Inoculated wheat plants have shown up to a

30% decrease in the Na⁺/K⁺ ratio compared to

controls (Zhang et al., 2023). Microbial EPS secretion

and biofilm development help to partially offset

excessive salt intake by acting as physical barriers (Li

et al., 2022).

4.2.2 Antioxidant Defense and ROS

Scavenging

Wheat plants produce more reactive oxygen species

(ROS) in salinity, which causes oxidative damage.

Antioxidant defense systems of plants can be

triggered by beneficial bacteria. For wheat leaves, for

instance, inoculation with Bacillus and Pseudomonas

species has been demonstrated to raise the activity of

antioxidant enzymes such as SOD and CAT by 60–

80%, hence reducing malondialdehyde (MDA)

levels, a sign of oxidative stress (Ren et al., 2023).

4.2.3 Accumulation of Compatible Solutes

Wheat’s microbial interactions help to synthesize

suitable solutes such as proline, glycine betaine, and

soluble sugars. It has been shown that adding plant

growth-promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) to wheat

plants increases the amount of proline they have by

two to three times. This helps the plants adjust to

changes in osmotic pressure and keeps cell walls and

proteins from getting damaged by salt (Zhang et al.,

2025).

4.3 Signal Transduction and Gene

Regulation in Plant-Microbe

Interactions

4.3.1 Quorum Sensing and Microbial

Signaling

Quorum sensing regulates the activity of rhizosphere

microorganisms. Levels of signaling molecules,

including N-acyl homoserine lactones (AHLs), have

been discovered to be adequate to initiate biofilm

production in populations above 10⁸ cells per gram of

soil. These compounds modulate gene expression

related to phytohormone synthesis, stress response,

and extracellular polymeric substance (EPS)

generation, thereby improving overall symbiotic

efficiency (Hassan et al., 2014).

4.3.2 Plant Immune Response and

Hormonal Crosstalk

Utilizing specific receptors, wheat roots recognize

microbial-associated molecular patterns (MAMPs),

which set off chains of salicylic acid (SA), jasmonic

acid (JA), and ethylene. Transcriptomic analyses

reveal that under salt stress, microbial inoculation

increases defense-related genes by 40% (Ansari et al.,

2023). Important hub genes combining signals from

both plant and microbial partners have been revealed

through co-expression network analysis methods,

such as Weighted Gene Co-Expression Network

Analysis (WGCNA), thereby improving resource

allocation and the plant’s response to stress (Sagar et

al., 2021).

4.3.3 Integration of Multi-Omics Data

Recent work using integrated multi-omics techniques

has identified thorough regulatory networks

supporting plant-microbe interactions. By 20–30% in

wheat, these studies show that microbial interactions

can raise the expression of transporter proteins and

stress-responsive enzymes, hence highlighting the

molecular basis of improved salt tolerance in

inoculated plants (Hasanuzzaman et al., 2013).

Adaptive Evolution and Symbiotic Mechanism of Wheat Rhizosphere Microbial Community under Saline-Alkali Environment

237

4.4 Geographic and Management

Variability

4.4.1 East Asia

Regional differences in climate, soil type, and

agricultural practices lead to significant variability in

the wheat rhizosphere microbiome. Artificial flood

irrigation and seasonal rain in East Asia have made

the land saltier, which hurts the output of agriculture

(Ansari et al., 2023). Fields of wheat kept under

organic or low-input systems sometimes have more

varied microbial populations. Higher organic matter

content soils show more abundance of slow-growing

taxa such as Acidobacteria and Verrucomicrobia,

which make up to 15% of the community, linked with

improved nutrient cycling and stress resilience,

according to studies in North China. Conventionally

managed fields with high chemical inputs often show

a majority of fast-growing Proteobacteria, therefore

producing a Shannon diversity index around 15%

lower than that of organic systems (Sagar et al.,

2021).

4.4.2 North America

From the irrigated Midwest to the dry Pacific

Northwest, North America’s wheat is grown in a

variety of settings. Because of their heavy synthetic

fertilizer and pesticide use, Midwest conventional

agricultural systems usually produce a microbial

population enhanced with Proteobacteria and

Firmicutes. Fields run under conservation techniques,

such as cover cropping and low tillage, show a 10–

20% higher microbial diversity with increased levels

of beneficial Actinobacteria and Bacteroidetes, hence

improving nutrient cycle and salt stress resilience

(Etesami and Beattie, 2018).

4.4.3 Australia

Where wheat is mostly produced in arid and semi-arid

areas of Australia, soil salinity is a considerable

obstacle. Salinity has been addressed using integrated

management techniques, including conservation

tillage, organic amendments, and microbial

inoculants. Field studies show that the application of

microbial consortia can raise the abundance of

beneficial Bacillus and Pseudomonas species by 25–

30%, therefore enhancing nutrient absorption and

lowering the Na⁺/K⁺ ratio by up to 30% (John et al.,

2011). Furthermore, organic amendments and

charcoal use have been demonstrated to increase the

Shannon diversity index by approximately 15% over

conventional methods (Ansari et al., 2023).

5 APPLICATION PROSPECTS

AND CHALLENGES

Microbial inoculants and bioformulations are being

increasingly used worldwide to improve wheat salt

tolerance and lower soil salinity levels. Many

biotechnology businesses and research projects are

creating products meant to reduce salt stress and

encourage plant development (Ashraf et al., 2013).

5.1 Bioformulation Products in the

Market

BASF has made bioformulations with lots of Bacillus

and Pseudomonas types that can tolerate salt. Wheat

production gains of 15–20% have been shown by

field tests on saline-affected soils. These formulations

help plants solubilize important minerals including

iron and phosphorous (Smith et al., 2018) by

improving ionic equilibrium and nutrient uptake.

Combining Bacillus velezensis with other plant

growth-promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR),

Novozymes has developed formulations with

phytohormone synthesis and antioxidant enzyme

activity. Wheat fields treated with these biofertilizers

showed yield increases of up to 25% compared to

untreated controls, according to pilot testing in North

America and Australia (Vessey, 2003).

Syngenta has created bioinoculants especially

meant to improve salt tolerance in wheat by

encouraging effective nutrient cycling and

strengthening the antioxidant defense systems of the

plant. Early results show notable increases in stress

tolerance and plant vigor. Currently under testing in

saline soils in parts of Australia and the United States,

these products are being evaluated for market release.

5.2 Challenges and Future Directions

5.2.1 Ecological Safety and Regulatory

Approvals

Rigid risk analyses preceding the introduction of

artificial or exogenous bacterial inoculants are

required to guarantee that these products do not affect

native soil ecosystems. Usually covering a sequence

of laboratory toxicity testing, soil microcosm studies,

and controlled environment trials simulating long-

term field conditions, such as risk assessments. One

prominent example is a multi-year study carried out

in the Netherlands when a microbial inoculant was

tracked over a five-year period to evaluate its effects

on indigenous soil microbial diversity, nitrogen

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cycling, and general soil health. The inoculant did not

appreciably change the native microbial community

structure or function, according to the study, thereby

confirming its ecological safety (Ren et al., 2023).

Overall, these bioformulations' safety for the

environment relies on strong legal systems and

ongoing, long-term field research. By means of these

steps, any possible hazards are found and controlled,

therefore fostering the safe and sustainable use of

microbial inoculants in contemporary agriculture.

5.2.2 Consistency and Field Performance

Microbial inoculants may not work as well as

expected when field factors change, such as soil type,

climate, and the types of microbes that are already

there. Constant research is focused on optimizing

carrier materials, formulation stability, and

application methodologies to optimize microbial

survival and activity over several situations. For

example, field studies on microbial inoculants in the

Midwest United States showed that formulations

using a lignite-based carrier maintained microbial

viability for up to 12 months in storage, while typical

peat-based carriers lost effectiveness after just six

months. The lignite-based formulation also produced

more consistent yield increases across a variety of soil

types (Vessey, 2003). In Australia, combining

microbial inoculants with biochar improved

performance by 20–25% under dry, saline conditions

due to better water retention and microbial habitat

quality (Ren et al., 2023).

5.2.3 Integration with Conventional

Agronomy

Microbial products need to be easily combined with

current farming methods if they are to be widely

adopted. To customize microbial solutions to

agronomic conditions and to create best practices for

application, this integration calls for cooperation

among researchers, product developers, and farmers.

For a pilot study carried out in Australia, agricultural

extension agencies teamed with research institutes to

combine microbial inoculants with conservation

tillage methods. The study showed that soil structure

and water retention were improved when microbial

formulations were used along with low tillage and

cover cropping. These modifications helped create a

steadier microbial population in the rhizosphere,

improving plant resilience and generally increasing

output by about 20% (Vessey, 2003).

5.2.4 Economic Viability and Scalability

Many bioformulations have prospective in pilot

research and controlled trials. Widespread acceptance

depends on their cost-effectiveness, nevertheless, for

large-scale farming operations. Overcoming these

financial obstacles needs both public-private

cooperation and constant invention. Studies have

shown, for example, that microbial inoculants can

increase crop yield and quality, hence perhaps

lowering the need for chemical fertilizers and so

increasing farmer economic returns (Ren et al., 2023).

However, the right advice for using microbial

inoculants and managing farms needs to be tailored to

make it possible for farmers to follow it. This will

help them reach their full potential and make sure

they can make money (Vessey, 2003).

6 CONCLUSION

Osmotic stress, ion toxicity, and oxidative damage

seriously impair wheat yield in saline-alkali conditions.

Still, the dynamic and adaptive character of the wheat

rhizosphere microbial community presents interesting

paths to improve salt tolerance. Beneficial microbes,

which include Proteobacteria, Actinobacteria,

Firmicutes, and Bacteroidetes, are very important for

plant growth because they help with stress reduction,

nutrient cycling, and mutualistic interactions.

Targeting agronomic methods and biotechnology

breakthroughs helps these microbial populations to be

controlled, hence enhancing wheat performance. New

developments in high-throughput sequencing,

transcriptomics, and metabolomics have shed light on

the molecular processes that make these relationships

possible. These include gene regulation, horizontal

gene transfer, metabolic reprogramming, and biofilm

formation. Regional variations—best shown by

disparities seen in East Asia, North America, and

Australia—showcase the need to customize

management strategies to fit local environmental

conditions. Synthetic biology and multi-omics

integration are two modern biotechnological

technologies that present interesting possibilities for

building microbial consortia with improved utility.

Although field uniformity, scalability, and ecological

safety still pose hurdles, combining microbial

inoculants with conventional agronomic techniques

has great potential to produce sustainable wheat in

saline-alkali soils. More cross-disciplinary study

between molecular biology, microbial ecology, and

agronomy is needed to create useful tools that improve

crop yields and help make the world's food supply safe.

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