Solar Energy Advancements and Deployment Strategies in Kwara

State, Nigeria: A Comprehensive Review

Adeleye Adeolu Otepola

, Samuel Nii Tackie

1,2

, William Olurotimi Falana

and Kamil Dimililer

1,2

Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, Near East University, Nicosia, Northern Cyprus, Cyprus

Centre for Science, Technology and Engineering (BILTEM) Researchers, Near East University,

Nicosia, Northern Cyprus, Cyprus

Keywords: Solar Energy, Kwara State, Nigeria, Solar Home Systems, Renewable Energy, Energy Policy, Off-Grid

Electrification.

Abstract: Solar energy has emerged as a pivotal solution to Nigeria’s chronic electricity supply challenges, particularly

in underserved regions like Kwara State. This review examines the current state, technological advancements,

policy frameworks, and socio-economic factors influencing solar energy deployment in Kwara State. Drawing

on recent empirical and review-based literature, the paper highlights adoption barriers, including limited

financing, regulatory gaps, and socio-cultural factors. Findings indicate an increasing interest in Solar Home

Systems (SHS), particularly in off-grid communities, but underscore the need for policy alignment, technical

capacity, and community engagement to scale up deployment. The paper concludes with actionable

recommendations aimed at researchers, investors, and policymakers.

1 INTRODUCTION

Energy is the backbone of economic development,

industrial growth, and social welfare in any nation. In

developing countries like Nigeria, the scarcity and

unreliability of electricity hinder progress in health,

education, agriculture, and manufacturing sectors.

Despite being endowed with vast renewable

resources, including solar, wind, biomass, and

hydropower, Nigeria continues to experience chronic

energy deficits. Approximately 45–50% of Nigerians

still lack access to reliable electricity, with rural areas

being disproportionately affected (Bamisile et al,

2017).

Solar energy, a clean, sustainable, and

increasingly cost-effective source of power, presents

a promising opportunity to bridge Nigeria's energy

access gap. The country receives annual solar

radiation ranging from 3.5 to 7.0 kWh/m²/day, with

an average of about 6 hours of sunlight daily across

most regions (

Agbo

et al, 2021). This positions

Nigeria—and by extension, Kwara State—as a

potential hub for solar energy deployment.

Kwara State, situated in the North Central

geopolitical zone of Nigeria, is a semi-urban region

characterized by substantial agricultural activity and

moderate industrialization. While the state benefits

from moderate solar irradiance and a relatively stable

geographical landscape, many of its communities

remain off-grid. Electrification rates vary widely

between Ilorin (urban capital) and remote LGAs such

as Baruten or Kaiama (Kehinde et al, 2022).

Figure 1. Solar radiation profile for Ilorin (Ajao et al, 2011).

Kwara has attracted interest from development

partners and NGOs for solar-based rural

electrification programs, but large-scale,

government-driven solar initiatives remain limited.

As such, Kwara represents both a microcosm of

Nigeria’s energy dilemma and a promising pilot

region for scalable solar energy solutions.

Otepola, A. A., Tackie, S. N., Falana, W. O. and Dimililer, K.

Solar Energy Advancements and Deployment Strategies in Kwara State, Nigeria: A Comprehensive Review.

DOI: 10.5220/0014288700004848

Paper published under CC license (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0)

In Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on Advances in Electrical, Electronics, Energy, and Computer Sciences (ICEEECS 2025), pages 211-218

ISBN: 978-989-758-783-2

211

1.1 National and Global Renewable

Energy Context

Globally, there has been a seismic shift toward

renewables. The 2015 Paris Agreement and United

Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDG 7)

have pushed countries to commit to universal access

to affordable, reliable, sustainable, and modern

energy by 2030. Solar photovoltaics (PV), with

rapidly declining installation costs, have emerged as

a leading technology in this transition.

Nigeria’s energy policy, as outlined in the Renewable

Energy Master Plan (REMP) and Electricity Vision

30:30:30, sets a goal to produce 30% of electricity

from renewable sources by 2030. Solar is expected to

contribute at least 15.27% of this target (Bamisile et

al, 2017). Despite policy intentions, implementation

challenges have hindered meaningful progress,

especially at the state level.

Figure 2. Monthly Solar Radiation in Ilorin, Kwara State

(weatherspark.com).

1.2 Problem Statement

While Nigeria’s solar potential is high, adoption

remains limited due to a combination of technical,

financial, socio-cultural, and regulatory barriers. In

Kwara State, these issues manifest through high costs

of solar systems, inadequate awareness among

residents, and insufficient government-led initiatives.

There is also limited data on how local

socioeconomic factors such as education, income,

and proximity to the national grid influence solar

energy adoption (Ibrahim & Usman, 2019).

1.3 Research Aim and Objectives

The aim of this review is to analyse the current status,

opportunities, and barriers to solar energy adoption in

Kwara State. The paper seeks to:

• Examine the solar potential and

technological advancements relevant to

Kwara.

• Review the policy and institutional

frameworks governing solar deployment.

• Analyse the socioeconomic determinants of

Solar Home Systems (SHS) adoption.

• Identify barriers and enablers to sustainable

solar energy scale-up.

• Offer evidence-based recommendations for

policymakers, researchers, and investors.

1.4 Significance of the Study

This review contributes to both academic literature

and policy discourse on decentralized renewable

energy in Nigeria. By focusing on Kwara State—a

region often underrepresented in energy studies—it

provides localized insights with broader national

implications. The findings could support:

• Targeted policy formulation and state-level

energy planning.

• Informed investment in solar microgrids or

SHS programs.

• Development of educational and technical

capacity-building initiatives.

In Figure 3, a line plot shows relatively stable and

high irradiance levels over three years, indicating

consistent solar availability for PV systems. This

confirms that Nigeria, including Kwara State,

receives sufficient solar energy to support robust

deployment of solar technologies.

Figure 3. Annual Solar Irradiance in Nigeria (2002–2004)

(Adapted from ERA5-Land Base Dataset (Idris et al, 2023).

1.5 Renewable Energy Goals and Solar

Potential in Nigeria

Nigeria has one of the highest solar energy potentials

in Sub-Saharan Africa due to its geographic location

and climate. According to (Bamisile et al, 2017), the

nation planned to generate 15.27% of its electricity

from solar sources by 2030, a dramatic increase from

just 1.26% in 2015 (Bamisile et al, 2017). Despite the

robust availability of solar radiation (3.5–7.0

kWh/m²/day), the actual contribution of solar energy

to Nigeria's energy mix remains limited due to

infrastructural, policy, and financial barriers.

ICEEECS 2025 - International Conference on Advances in Electrical, Electronics, Energy, and Computer Sciences

212

1.6 Status and Efficiency of Solar

Energy Technologies

Technological advances in photovoltaic (PV)

systems, including improved efficiency and

durability, have made solar energy more accessible

(

Ojo et al, 2023). Note that innovations tailored to local

climates, including off-grid and hybrid systems, are

especially vital in Nigeria. The study stresses how

crucial it is to develop solar solutions that suit each

region’s unique needs, with real-world examples

taken from both Nigerian villages and colder regions

like Canada (

Ojo et al, 2023). Also, (Idris et al, 2023)

looked at solar radiation data from 2002 to 2004,

finding consistent readings above 33,000kWh/ m² per

year across various areas. Their exploration of

offshore solar power presents a novel opportunity for

Nigeria’s energy sector

(Idris et al, 2023).

1.7 Socio-Economic Drivers and

Constraints

In Nigeria, the uptake of solar technology is heavily

influenced by socioeconomic conditions. A study

involving 400 households in Kwara State used Tobit

and Interval regression models to uncover key trends

(

Adamu & Oladipo, 2023).

It revealed that people with higher incomes and

education levels were more likely to adopt Solar

Home Systems (SHS). At the same time, those who

were satisfied with their current energy supply were

less motivated to switch (Adamu & Oladipo,

2023).

Interestingly, rural communities far from the national

grid were more drawn to SHS, valuing its dependable

and self-sufficient nature over reliable grid power.

1.8 Policy and Regulatory Landscape

National initiatives, such as Nigeria’s Renewable

Energy Master Plan, provide a policy foundation;

however, inconsistent regulations at the state level

present significant barriers to the effective rollout of

solar energy. As

Agbo et al. (2021) highlight, despite

growing recognition of solar energy as a practical

option, progress is stalled by reliance on fossil fuels,

a shortage of government incentives, and inadequate

technical systems to support large-scale adoption

(Agbo et al., 2021).

Moreover, the absence of cohesive monitoring

systems and unclear licensing protocols discourages

private investments in the solar sector, particularly in

less urbanized states like Kwara.

1.9 Environmental and Economic

Implications

All reviewed studies underscore the dual role of solar

energy in environmental protection and economic

empowerment. By reducing carbon emissions, solar

energy addresses climate challenges. Economically,

the promotion of solar technologies fosters job

creation in installation, maintenance, and

manufacturing sectors. Long-term cost savings from

solar use also benefit both households and

enterprises.

2 METHODOLOGY

This review adopted a narrative synthesis

methodology, integrating both qualitative and

quantitative data to assess the state of solar energy

adoption in Kwara State, Nigeria. The study

methodology is divided into five interrelated phases:

defining research objectives, executing a systematic

literature search, screening and selecting relevant

studies, extracting key data, and synthesizing findings

for analysis. A block diagram below is designed to

illustrate the phases.

Figure 4. Block Diagram of Methodology Phases

Figure 5 offers a clear visual breakdown of the

components (panel, controller, battery, inverter,

load), enhancing the reader's understanding of the

SHS architecture in the methodology and results

discussion

Define Objectives

Literature Search

Screen and Select Studies

Collect and Extract Data

Analyze and synthesize findings

Solar Energy Advancements and Deployment Strategies in Kwara State, Nigeria: A Comprehensive Review

213

Figure 5: Off-Grid PV System Schematic

2.1 Defining Objectives

The first step in this review is to clearly establish the

research objectives. The central aim of the study is to

explore the status, advancements, and challenges of

solar energy adoption in Kwara State. Specifically,

the review investigates the region’s solar potential,

the technological and socioeconomic factors

influencing adoption, existing policy frameworks,

and the practical barriers to solar energy deployment.

The objectives also encompass a review of

interventions that can potentially scale up renewable

energy penetration in rural and urban Kwara, making

the study both academically relevant and policy

informative.

2.2 Literature Search Strategy

A structured literature search was conducted to

identify relevant peer-reviewed studies, reports, and

datasets. Key databases, including Scopus,

ScienceDirect, IEEE Xplore, and Google Scholar,

were used, as well as the SciSpace AI database for

enhanced coverage. Boolean logic and keyword

combinations such as “solar energy AND Kwara

State”, “photovoltaic AND Nigeria”, “solar barriers

AND adoption”, and “renewable energy AND policy

Nigeria” were employed to filter search results.

The time frame for inclusion spanned from 2015 to

2024, ensuring the inclusion of the most recent and

contextually relevant studies. Only English-language

publications were considered. Emphasis was placed

on empirical studies and review articles that analyzed

solar technology deployment, policy frameworks, or

behavioral adoption factors within Nigeria, with

particular interest in regional contexts applicable to

Kwara State.

2.3 Screening and Selection of Studies

An initial pool of 42 sources was identified. These

were screened based on relevance to solar energy in

Nigeria, especially at the state or community level.

Inclusion criteria required that studies provide either

data on solar irradiance, Solar Home System (SHS)

adoption, or an assessment of policy and

socioeconomic factors influencing solar uptake.

Studies focusing purely on other renewable energy

types (e.g., wind or hydro) or those lacking

methodological transparency were excluded.

Following this process, five peer-reviewed articles

were selected for detailed analysis, each offering a

unique insight into the technical, behavioral, or

institutional dimensions of solar energy adoption in

Nigeria, and in some cases, specifically in Kwara.

2.4 Data Collection and Extraction

The selected studies were examined for both

quantitative and qualitative data. Quantitative data

included metrics such as solar irradiance levels (in

kWh/m²), SHS adoption rates among households, and

demographic predictors of energy behavior (e.g.,

income or education). One of the key parameters

extracted was the annual average solar irradiance for

Kwara State, which consistently exceeds 33,000

kWh/m², reinforcing the state’s viability for solar PV

installations. To understand energy output from a

typical solar panel, the following formula was

employed:

EArHP=∗∗ ∗

(1)

Where:

E is the energy output (kWh/day)

A is the area of the solar panel (m²)

r is the panel efficiency (e.g., 0.18 for 18%)

H is the average solar radiation (kWh/m²/day)

is the performance ratio, accounting for losses

(~0.75)

For example, a 10 m² panel with 18% efficiency in

Kwara, which receives 5.5 kWh/m²/day of sunlight,

would generate:

10*0.18*5.5*0.75 7.425 /EkWhday==

(2)

This calculation demonstrates that small-scale

solar panels are capable of meeting basic household

electricity needs in the region.

Qualitative data focused on institutional barriers,

local perceptions, and the impact of education and

policy initiatives on solar adoption. This dual-

ICEEECS 2025 - International Conference on Advances in Electrical, Electronics, Energy, and Computer Sciences

214

pronged data collection ensured a holistic

understanding of the landscape.

2.5 Data Synthesis and Analysis

The final step involved synthesizing the data to

identify patterns, contradictions, and evidence-

backed insights. The findings were grouped into three

primary dimensions: technical feasibility (solar

potential, PV calculations), socioeconomic influences

(education, income, grid distance), and policy or

institutional barriers (regulations, subsidies,

governance). Cross-study comparisons enabled the

extraction of recurring themes, such as the role of

donor programs in SHS diffusion and the persistent

gap in public awareness. This systematic approach

enabled the generation of evidence-based

recommendations and contextual insights into how

solar energy can be more effectively deployed in

Kwara State.

Figure 6. Cost Breakdown of a Typical Solar Home System

(SHS).

This pie chart of Figure 6 illustrates the distribution

of costs in a standard Solar Home System (SHS),

highlighting that solar panels and battery storage

account for the majority of expenses, contributing

significantly to high upfront costs—one of the

primary adoption barriers in rural Nigeria (

Adamu &

Oladipo, 2023)

3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The findings highlight three major themes: the current

adoption status of solar technologies, the

determinants of adoption behavior, and the prevailing

challenges inhibiting scale-up.

3.1 Adoption Trends of Solar

Technologies in Kwara State

Solar Home Systems (SHS) remain the most common

form of solar technology adopted in Kwara,

especially in rural and peri-urban communities. The

uptake is largely driven by necessity, particularly in

off-grid regions where the national electricity grid is

absent or unreliable. According to Adamu and

Oladipo (2023), approximately 72% of off-grid

households surveyed expressed willingness to adopt

SHS, citing reliability and independence from the

grid as key motivators (

Ojo et al, 2023)

While donor-funded and NGO-supported projects

(e.g., solar micro-grids) have had some success, they

often lack sustainability mechanisms. Maintenance

lapses and inadequate technical support frequently

lead to project failures once donor funding ceases.

3.2 Socioeconomic Determinants of

SHS Adoption

Data from a study of 400 households in Kwara State

provides insight into the key adoption drivers:

• Income Level: Households with higher

disposable income are significantly more

likely to adopt SHS. The cost of full-system

installation is a major barrier for low-income

earners (

Ojo et al, 2023)

• Educational Attainment: Literacy and

awareness about energy options are strongly

correlated with adoption. Educated

households understand the long-term cost-

benefit advantage of solar over diesel

generators (

Ojo et al, 2023)

• Proximity to Grid: Households located

farther from the grid exhibit greater interest

and willingness to pay for solar technologies

due to a lack of alternatives.

• Satisfaction with Existing Supply:

Interestingly, those who reported being

"satisfied" with their current energy sources

(e.g., fuel generators or partial grid access)

were less likely to consider solar transitions

(

Ojo et al, 2023)

These findings suggest the need for targeted

incentive programs, particularly those designed for

rural and lower-income groups. Figure 7, shown

below, describes a bar chart comparing the influence

scores of factors such as income, education, and grid

distance. It emphasizes that socio-economic

Solar Energy Advancements and Deployment Strategies in Kwara State, Nigeria: A Comprehensive Review

215

characteristics significantly shape willingness to

invest in SHS. Tailored interventions are needed for

different community profiles.

Figure 7: Key Determinants of SHS Adoption in Kwara

State.

3.3 Evaluation of Solar Resource

Availability

As seen in Table 1, solar irradiance in Nigeria has

remained consistently high, with annual averages

exceeding 33,000 kWh/m². Kwara, situated in the

central belt, receives reliable sunlight year-round,

positioning it as a strategic location for PV

deployment (

Adamu & Oladipo 2023)

Table 1. Annual solar irradiance in Nigeria (2002–2004).

Year Irradiance (kWh/m²)

2002 34,914.73

2003 33,898.32

2004 34,338.32

Source: Adapted from Idris et al., 2023 (Adamu & Oladipo, 2023).

3.4 Barriers to Solar Energy

Deployment

Despite the promising solar profile and growing

interest, several obstacles persist. The top barriers

identified from literature and local field studies are

summarized in Table 2.

Table 2: Key barriers to solar energy in Kwara State.

Barrier

Severity

(%)

Description

High Initial

Cost

90%

Upfront cost deters low-

income households

Technical

Expertise

70%

Shortage of trained

technicians for installation &

repai

Policy

Uncertainty

65%

Regulatory ambiguity

discourages private

investment

Low

Awareness

60%

Misconceptions and a lack of

information limit adoption

Source: Synthesized from (Agbo et al, 2021), (Ojo et al 2023)., and (Idris et

al, 2023).

These findings emphasize the importance of financial

subsidies, capacity-building programs, and clear

policy frameworks to foster solar market expansion.

Figure 8 describes a severity ranking chart that

shows high installation cost and technical limitations

are the most pressing challenges. It suggests a clear

roadmap for intervention—subsidies, local technician

training, and awareness campaigns can directly

reduce these high-impact barriers.

Figure 8. Barriers to Solar Energy Deployment in Kwara

State.

3.5 Comparative Insight: Kwara vs.

Other Nigerian States

Compared to states in Northern Nigeria (e.g., Kano or

Katsina), Kwara has slightly lower irradiance but

shows higher behavioral receptiveness to SHS due to

stronger education indicators and NGO presence.

However, states like Lagos benefit from more

supportive policies and infrastructure, highlighting

the impact of regional governance and institutional

support. The chart below (Figure 9) compares the

perceived severity of key barriers to solar energy

adoption in Kwara, Lagos, and Kano States. Kwara

shows consistently high ratings across all factors,

especially in cost and technical support, emphasizing

ICEEECS 2025 - International Conference on Advances in Electrical, Electronics, Energy, and Computer Sciences

216

the need for localized interventions (ECN & REEEP

2022), (

REEEP

and

NESP

2022).

Figure 9: Comparison of Solar Adoption Barriers Across

Nigerian States.

3.6 Interpretation and Implications

The interplay between technical feasibility,

socioeconomic realities, and policy infrastructure

defines the success of solar energy programs. In

Kwara State, the latent potential remains high, but

systematic issues must be addressed. The state can

emerge as a model for decentralized solar adoption if

localized strategies are aligned with national goals,

especially in rural electrification, job creation, and

climate action.

Figure 10. Flowchart of Solar Energy Policy and

Implementation Framework in Nigeria.

4 CONCLUSIONS

This review demonstrates that solar energy holds

immense potential for addressing Kwara State’s

persistent electricity access gaps, particularly in rural

and peri-urban communities. The steady availability

of over 33,000 kWh/m² of solar energy each year,

combined with falling prices of solar panels, confirms

that solar power is technically ready for large-scale

use.

Even with solar energy’s potential, its rollout in

Nigeria faces several roadblocks, including steep

initial costs, scarce technical know-how, poor policy

enforcement, and low public engagement. Household

data from Kwara reveal that factors such as income,

education, and how far people live from the grid

significantly affect whether they adopt SHS. These

findings point to the need for policies that address

specific social and economic realities. Additionally,

inconsistent regulations and the lack of unified state-

level renewable strategies only make matters worse.

Kwara holds significant promise as a model for

decentralized solar energy solutions in Nigeria-

provided that key challenges are effectively

addressed – in line with both domestic priorities and

global climate commitments.

To scale up solar adoption in Kwara, a thoughtful

and locally informed strategy is essential. This begins

with drafting a detailed state-specific renewable

energy policy that aligns with national plans but

reflects Kwara’s unique context. The policy should

specify clear steps for implementation, offer financial

incentives, and set realistic, trackable goals to

encourage private investment and infrastructure

expansion.

Breaking down financial barriers is just as

important, especially for households with limited

income. This could involve government-supported

subsidies, grants from donor agencies, and flexible

microfinance options that spread out the cost of Solar

Home Systems. It is vital that these financial solutions

are accessible and aligned with the everyday

economic realities of rural communities.

At the same time, building local capacity through

technical training is vital for the long-term success of

solar energy deployment. Investments should focus

on equipping residents with hands-on skills in

installation and maintenance, using platforms like

vocational centers, technical schools, and

community-led initiatives to train a competent solar

workforce.

Boosting public understanding and energy

knowledge is also a key step towards wider solar

adoption. Education campaigns, hands-on

demonstration projects within communities, and

including renewable energy in school lessons can

play a major role in making solar technology familiar

and trusted- particularly in regions where uptake

remains low.

Public-private collaboration should be actively

pursued as a strategic approach to unite funding and

Solar Energy Advancements and Deployment Strategies in Kwara State, Nigeria: A Comprehensive Review

217

technical know-how. When governments, NGOs, and

private firms work together, they can introduce

creative solutions, reach more communities, and keep

solar energy efforts going strong for the long term.

In the end, successful implementation depends on

having clear systems to monitor progress, evaluate

results, and listen to community voices. Relying on

real-time data and feedback will improve solar

programs over time and make policies more

responsive and effective.

REFERENCES

Olusola Bamisile, Mustafa Dagbasi, Babatunde, A., &

Ayodele, O. (2017). A review of renewable energy

potential in Nigeria; solar power development over the

years. Engineering and Applied Science Research,

44(4), 242–248.

Agbo, Emmanuel. P., Edet, Collins. O., Magu, Thomas. O.,

Njok, Armstrong. O., Ekpo, Chris. M., & Louis, H.

(2021). Solar energy: A panacea for the electricity

generation crisis in Nigeria. Heliyon, 7(5), e07016.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2021.e07016

Kehinde,O.O, Ehiagwina. F.O., Bamidele, G.K.,

Adekanye, M.J. (2022). An Evaluation of the Global

Solar Energy Resource for

Offa, Kwara State, Nigeria. International Journal of

Research in Engineering and Science (IJRES), 10(7).

Ajao, K., Oladosu, O., & Popoola, O. (2011). Cost-benefit

analysis of hybrid wind-solar power generation by

homer power optimization software. Journal of Applied

Science and Technology, 16(1-2).

https://doi.org/10.4314/jast.v16i1-2.64779.

Ibrahim, B.B. & Usman, A. (2019.). Retscreen Analysis of

Solar Energy Project in Lafiagi, Kwara State, Nigeria.

Global Journal of Science Frontier Research: A

Physics and Space Science, 19(4).

Idris, W. O., Ibrahim, M. Z., & Alibani, A. (2023). The

Trend of Solar Energy Utilization and Its Offshore

Assessment in Nigeria. Preprints.

https://doi.org/10.20944/preprints202307.0803.v1

Ojo, G. G., Lottu, O. A., Ndiwe, T. C., Izuka, U., & Ehiobu,

N. N. (2023). Solar energy adaptation and efficiency

across diverse Nigerian and global climates: A review

of technological advancement. Engineering Heritage

Journal, 5(1), 99-107.

https://doi.org/10.26480/gwk.01.2023.99.107

Adamu, A., & Oladipo, O. S. (2023). A mixed-methods

study on the determinants of solar home systems

utilization in rural, off-grid Nigeria. Journal of Global

Economics and Business, 4(14).

https://doi.org/10.58934/jgeb.v4i14.171.

Energy Commission of Nigeria (ECN), & Renewable

Energy and Energy Efficiency Partnership (REEEP).

(2022). Barriers to renewable energy adoption in

Nigeria: A comparative regional analysis. Abuja,

Nigeria: ECN Publications.

Renewable Energy and Energy Efficiency Partnership

(REEEP) & Nigerian Energy Support Programme

(NESP). (2022). Framework for renewable energy

policy implementation in Nigeria: A multilevel

governance review. Abuja, Nigeria: GIZ/REEEP

Publications.

ICEEECS 2025 - International Conference on Advances in Electrical, Electronics, Energy, and Computer Sciences

218