Effects of Cultural Variations on the Personality of Individuals and
Their Effect on Psychological Counseling
Qiwen Ye
WoodsWorth College, Department of Psychology, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5S 1A1, Canada
Keywords: Culture Variations, Psychological Counselling.
Abstract: Human personalities are reflection of their individuality as well as group identity, such as diaspora and culture.
The traits gained through socialization and belongingness helps share personality which is why even within
counselling setting, these differences can be visible. This calls for the need to understand the effects of culture
on prevalence of different personality types and traits to underscore its implications on counselling. The study
finds that a successful counselling contains understanding the personality traits of each client in the context
of their cultural socialization and upbringing. This fulfills the understanding of the clients’ issues and helps
in providing resounding and successful interventions and additional help. While doing so, it is important to
keep in mind that cultural variations of personality come in form of extraversion and introversion among
clients, romantic and creative traits. This study has shown that belonging to different culture shapes
personality traits such as expression, openness and creativity, thus, implicating on therapy treatment of
individual clients. It allowing to form goals and work on it. Moreover, understanding the different personality
types also inform the communication strategies formed for counselling. Lastly, this study emphasise the need
for cross-cultural counselling.
1 INTRODUCTION
In the modern world, as societies grow
interconnected, different people from different
contexts have started amalgamating and
communicating with one another. As a result, the
need to understand the cultural variations in
personality has become quintessential. Personality
refers to the enduring characteristics and behavior
that comprise a person's unique adjustment to life,
including major traits, interests, drives, values, self-
concept, abilities, and emotional patterns (American
Psychological Association, 2024). This predisposes
that personality might vary from individual to
individual and can be affected by numerous factors.
Moreover, while some fundamental elements of an
individual personality vary, others remain fairly
consistent based on the demographic diaspora and
culture the individual belongs (Ashton, 2022). This
means that certain personality traits might be
widespread across certain cultures. The literature also
highlights the differing effects of Oriental and
Western cultures and depicts how culture influences
the personality of individuals. Moreover, these effects
of differences in personality might also be visible in
the counselling practice. A multicultural perspective
in counselling is essential as it accepts that
individuals are not all the same and that their
background—their ethnicity, their race, and their
cultural context—is an important component of who
they are (Lee, 2014).
In this relation, this essay aims to understand how
culture affects the prevalence of different personality
traits and understand their implications in the
counselling setting. It argues that understanding the
client and their culture is important to ensure the
success of the therapeutic relationship. As such, the
essay first understands the theoretical framework of
the argument by providing the literature review. Next,
the essay addresses the key cultural variations of
personality across cultures in terms of extraversion
and introversion, romantic relationships, and
creativity. Lastly, it addresses the implications of
these differences on the counselling relationship
along with addressing the challenges and strategies in
these situations.
Ye, Q.
Effects of Cultural Variations on the Personality of Individuals and Their Effect on Psychological Counseling.
DOI: 10.5220/0014117700004942
Paper published under CC license (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0)
In Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on Applied Psychology and Marketing Management (APMM 2025), pages 417-423
ISBN: 978-989-758-791-7
Proceedings Copyright © 2026 by SCITEPRESS – Science and Technology Publications, Lda.
417

2 LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Theories of Personality Across
Cultures
The personality of individuals is often shaped by the
culture and region they belong to. Numerous theories
depict how personality varies across different
contexts. First, there are some broadly accepted
theories such as Big Five and Eysenck’s dimensions
which provide a foundational basis of the personality.
Secondly, enhancements are driven by Indigenous
psychology models that position personality traits in
the ethnic background of beliefs and values (Consoli
et al., 2020). This highlights that while there are
different aspects in every culture, there is no single
theory that corresponds to all the changes associated
with the individual. The Big Five Model posits five
universal traits: Openness, conscientiousness,
extraversion, agreeableness and neuroticism. Inter-
cultural data corroborate the model's applicability yet
show cultural differences (Chamorro-Premuzic,
2016). For instance, the aspect of extraversion is
perceived as high in individualistic societies while it
has less significance in societies that culturally focus
on unity. This raises questions about the universal
applicability of the Big Five and corroborates that its
significance might be limited to Western cultures.
Additionally, Eysenck’s Dimensions include
extraversion, neuroticism, and psychoticism, which
highlights a strong genetic-related basis for
personality traits. These dimensions are more or less
international but the importance and the relevance of
the particular trait can be different for different
cultures (Chamorro-Premuzic, 2016). For example, in
Western cultures, extroverted people are sociable,
while introverted people are valued more for self-
restraint in the Eastern cultures. This supersedes the
way in which culture affects the value assigned to
different traits of individuals. Lastly, the Indigenous
Psychology Models state that individuals cannot be
interpreted without understanding the cultural
perspective (Ramady, 2016). For instance, the
Chinese concept of Renqing (compassion) and the
African concept of Ubuntu (communal
interdependence), are all relations that are not
integrated in any Western theory and highlight the
relational aspects of psychology such as those with
nature and spirituality. Therefore, these theories
suggest that individually and collectively, personality
applies universally and across cultures. However,
there are certain variations in how it is manifested and
applied across cultures.
2.2 Cultural Influences on Personality
Traits
Using theories such as the Hofstede’s cultural
dimensions and Schwartz’s value theory is useful to
understand in which ways culture impacts personality
traits. Cultures’ values behavior and personalities can
be measured by the six dimensions that Hofstede put
forward, these include power distance, individualism-
collectivism, masculinity-femininity, uncertainty
avoidance, and long-term orientation and indulgence-
restraint (Moonen, 2017). For example, cultures with
high power distance values stress, autonomy, and in
some ways reflect on agreement and consciousness
scores. Additionally, a high uncertainty avoidance
culture can also predict anxiety and may hence be
associated with high neuroticism. This depicts how
certain cultures breed specific traits in individuals
while others limit those. On the other hand, Moonen
has put forward a theory of basic human values that
can help explain personality in cultural environments
by conceptualizing ten cultural dimensions including
obedience, pleasure, and respect for the past
(Moonen, 2017). In communal societies, where
conformity is the norm, respondents exhibit traits
such as conscientiousness and agreeableness, while in
individualistic societies, which promote self-
direction, respondents are encouraged to experience
openness to experience. Therefore, it can be stated
that it is beneficial to evaluate personality more from
cultural alternatives rather than metrics that engross
personality only.
Cross-cultural comparison between
individualism and collectivism usually depicts
personality trait differences. European and American
societies are associated with individualism, where
people possess certain personality characteristics, for
example, extroversion and openness (Chamorro-
Premuzic, 2016). On the other hand, collectivistic
cultures, especially in East Asia, support harmony
emphasizing agreeableness and lower levels of
extraversion, which corresponds with aspects of
modesty and togetherness. Additionally, there are
some other special characteristics, that reveal
contextual variations within personality, such as
conscientiousness, neuroticism, and so on. In East
Asian societies, conscientiousness can be indeed seen
as relevant to cultural values of hard work and polite
manner (Zotzmann et al., 2019). Neuroticism,
however, is found to be higher in high-stress areas,
for instance in some East Asian countries where high
neuroticism might be brought by stress and societal
demands rather than actual temperament. These
results imply that culture plays an important role in
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personality and demonstrate how cultural demands
can influence the availability of certain traits amongst
the population. Thus, personality is both a global and
culturally distinct dimension.
2.3 Implications for Psychological
Counseling
The influence of cultural factors on personality is
important to recognize in psychological counselling
because it helps the practitioner tailor the counselling
for cultural differences. For instance, mistaken
attributes, such as perceiving shyness as a sign of low
extraversion instead of collectivism can distort
evaluation and hypothetical management (Zotzmann
et al., 2019). In Western culture, high scores in
extraversion may mean confidence, which may be
prejudicial to reserved, collectivism-oriented clients.
This highlights that understanding the cultural effect
and their implications on the behavior and personality
of the client is essential to create culturally responsive
counselling and enhancing the therapeutic alliance.
Indigenous frameworks view personality in terms of
community, spirituality, and balance rather than as
attributes (Ramady, 2016). This approach is useful in
various counselling contexts as it helps to incorporate
the social model which is more comprehensible for
people with collectivistic backgrounds. In the same
way, Hofstede or Schwartz’s cultural dimensions can
also be used to understand personality and culture as
it will point out the cultural values that lie at the root
of the personalities being identified in counselling
(Zotzmann et al., 2019). Power distance, collectivism
or uncertainty avoidance are just examples of the
content in which identifying as a counsellor shall be
in tune with the client’s perspective to increase
success rates of approached interventions.
Conclusively, the presence of culture-integrated
personality theories enriches the general personality
theory by giving an elaborate account of the
complexity of the personality in the context of the
world. Hence, through the application of Indigenous
psychology, work and cultural aspects, along with
cross-cultural research, counselors can be in a
position to work on the general strategies governing
both the client’s culture and individuality hence
boosting the general and overall satisfaction of the
therapy process.
3 KEY CULTURAL VARIATIONS
IN PERSONALITY TRAITS
3.1 Extraversion and Introversion
The basic culture an individual belongs to plays a
significant role in influencing the depiction of traits
such as extroversion and introversion. In
individualistic cultures such as the U.S., introversion
is not encouraged and assertiveness and sociable
nature are regarded as traits of confident and
successful people (Sumra, 2019). People with high
extraversion in the collectivistic culture use social
events to broadcast their achievements and opinions.
On the other hand, in collectivistic cultures such as
the East Asian temperament like humility, being
reserved, and thoughtful is more in harmony with
collectivistic values of socially useful self and respect
for others (Sumra, 2019). In this relation, during
counselling contexts, it is imperative to consider the
above cultural effects on dimensions of extraversion
and introversion with a view to enhancing the
facilitation of the clients well. While an American
client with extraversion will involve the use of spoken
words and self-actualization during therapy, an East
Asian client will not do so because he or she will
consider such actions as being improper. This
variation influences the therapeutic modalities and
processes because the counsellor may have to spend
considerable time building trust with the clients,
especially if they hail from collectivistic cultures and
are introverted. Conclusively, acknowledging that
introversion in such aspects is admired and not a sign
of inferiority assists the counsellors in avoiding
misleading, thereby, enhancing the client’s feelings,
and the overall counselling.
3.2 Romantic Relationships
Another area which reflects the cultural influence on
personality traits and expectations is romantic
relationships. In the context of Western culture,
choice in romantic relationships is more often an
isolated decision based on mutually felt
affectionateness and sexual attraction, along with the
need to express love through affection and intercourse
being seen as essential and natural (Karandashev,
2016). On the other hand, in many collectivist
societies like India and some parts of the Middle East,
romantic relationships are more family-oriented and
in a love marriage the couple does not start a
relationship without the permission of family
members. This setup corresponds to personality
Effects of Cultural Variations on the Personality of Individuals and Their Effect on Psychological Counseling
419

variables such as agreeableness, duty and obligation
to family values hence suppressing individual rights
for the benefit of the entire family. Such intercultural
differences can present serious implications within
counselling therapy (Karandashev, 2016). For
instance, counsellors who have trained or drawn from
individualist cultures will assess the compatibility
and communication of the couple, but those from
collectivist cultures drawn from arranged marriage
systems will assess compatibility with the family,
family identity, and interdependency. It is even
possible for the client and counsellor to feel
misunderstood because the counsellor may be
applying standards that are perhaps owed to the
individualistic-orientated culture. Therefore,
understanding these differences can help a therapist
adjust his/her strategies to accommodate cultural
environments more appropriately, so the client can
solve problems within cultural references that are
compatible with individual and couple’s values and
roles.
3.3 Creativity
Attitudes regarding creativity and innovation differ
significantly across cultures with notable differences
within individualistic and collectivistic societies. In
the West, people are encouraged to think freely and
employ creativity and innovative ideas, along with
divergent thinking is considered a mark of success
(Chua et al., 2015). The studies showed that Western
cultures had higher conceptions concerning creativity
as an essential attribute associated with self-
expression, where people are expected to develop
novelty and defying standards. On the other hand,
collectivistic cultures such as Japanese or South
Korean are more inclined towards group rather than
individual harmony and norms, and creativity is
fostered towards group goals rather than individual
ones (Chua et al., 2015). This highlights that the
influence of culture is rampant in how people express
creativity and think. The use of creativity in therapy
is also moderated by culture to some extent as clients
drawn from individualistic cultures may easily
embrace creativity more than the collectivist client
whose culture expects them to go through methods
and arrive at goals in teams as depicted through group
exercises of active listening and stages of group
formation (Colem, 2024). As a result, creative
therapies such as art therapy or narrative therapy
amongst others would have to be adjusted to the
cultural beliefs of the patients. This cultural
sensitivity benefits the client through involvement
and possible improvement due to the fact it
accommodates the cultural practice with which the
client is comfortable in therapy.
4 IMPLICATIONS OF CULTURAL
PERSONALITY VARIATIONS
IN COUNSELING
4.1 Cultural Sensitivity
The client’s cultural background is vital when it
comes to counselling since it facilitates great
understanding and admiration of the culture by the
counsellor. Applying standard therapeutic practice
produces best practices to help clients who come from
collectivistic or non-Western backgrounds or
outlooks but fail to provide what may feel like an
appropriately customized intervention (Smith &
Trimble, 2016). For instance, Smith and Trimble who
investigated clients of color in the US showed that the
dropout rate of the minority was fifty per cent higher,
implying a lack of culturally sensitive therapy.
During the research, confounding variables such as
socio-economic conditions and language differences
were maintained. On the other hand, culturally
sensitive counseling affirms these differences
asserting that aspects of personality and relations are
informed by culture (Sue et al., 2022). These
researchers presented an approach that presents
rapport enhancement strategies based on the culture
of clients from Asia, Africa, and South America and
stated that these clients were expected to be more
polite, more formal, and less spontaneous, and may
not like close contact.
The approach highlighted earlier has worked; the
clients feel culturally understood and as a result 60%
of them will likely continue with therapy and have
positive things to say about it (Sue et al., 2022). This
does not just highlight the positive effects of cultural
sensitivity but also predisposes the influence of
counselor’s understanding of the client in the
therapeutic relationship. Other approaches, for
instance, cultural contextual therapy and Indigenous
counselling, incorporate clients’ belief systems, and
family and community systems. In practical terms, it
may involve the choice of words, cognitive and
behavioral goals in line with the community
expectations or avoiding an assertive communication
style. Counsellors that have adopted culturally
sensitive practices have been estimated to be four
times more effective for minority clients than other
broad western approaches (Hall et al., 2016). This
highlights that by practicing cultural competence in
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their work, counsellors enhance clients’ relevance of
therapy to their lives, which creates trust. Hence, this
not only affirms the clients’ cultural perspectives but
also greatly improves practice outcomes, which
benefits the overall mental health process’s equity.
4.2 Communication Styles and
Counseling Dynamics
In culturally competent counselling, communication
is another important aspect that requires
understanding the directness and contextual
differences of the client as they can greatly affect the
success of counselling. Studies have highlighted that
people who originate from low context
communication cultures like the United States and
Germany prefer direct communication and do not cry
foul over personal issues (Ting-Toomey & Dorjee,
2018). At the other hand, clients from high-context
indirect communication cultures such as Japan and
India may use nonverbal communication or a
situation as a message bearer. If the counsellor is not
familiar with the cultural differences between the
client and does not respect these differences, the
result of misplaced style and erodes trust in the
therapeutic relationship will be based on style. There
are opportunities to change communication methods
and this will lead to better results. For example, the
counsellor should refrain from direct confrontation
with clients who are from high context cultures,
promote silence and gesture. Research has
demonstrated that clients from high context cultures
are 35% more likely to continue with the therapy if
the counsellor is playing a culturally sensitive role
(Haller et al., 2019). This illustrates that
understanding the cultural context of the client and
tailoring the therapeutic relationship accordingly is
essential.
Moreover, it also points to the need to have a
multicultural counselling perspective or training
before the beginning of a counsellor’s future.
Additionally, to increase cultural sensitivity,
conducting open-ended questions and active listening
are other advisable strategies. In practice, the
counsellors who followed cultural considerations of
East Asian clients, such as a gradual expression of
feelings, reported up to 25% enhancement of the
satisfaction and involvement of the clients (Ting-
Toomey & Dorjee, 2018). Through maintaining these
cultural communication norms, the magnitude of
discomfort is decreased, rapport increased, and
therefore, the client is more likely to be receptive to
what any counsellor has to say. Thus, this approach
strengthens the client–counsellor relationship, which
leads to the enhancement of counselling outcomes for
clients with different backgrounds.
4.3 Goal Setting and Progress
Assessment
The culture that the client belongs to and its
interactions with the client’s personality also
influence the goal-setting and personal growth of a
client. The values in individualistic cultures revolve
around self-sufficiency and self-realization and
consequently, treatment aims include personalised
accomplishment (4). On the other hand, some clients
come from collectivist cultures, in which the common
goal is families or communities. In these contexts,
success is reported in terms of the value of harmony
and meeting expectations from the group goals rather
than personal. This distinction highlights that the
session may result in a gap if counsellors seek to treat
clients using theories that encompass individualism.
In this case, the counsellors practising with clients of
collectivistic cultures may come across as careless or
lacking proper structures for dealing with the issue.
The findings clearly show that culturally appropriate
goal assessment boosts the interest of the clients and
their satisfaction (Haller et al., 2019). Additionally,
these researchers found that clients from collectivist
cultures perceived a higher degree of satisfaction with
the formal therapy and denoted it as meaningful if the
session contained culturally relevant goals. For
instance, a person who is from a collectivistic culture
will prioritize the family and is likely to experience
increased motivation and meaning in the therapy if it
is as much about them as it is about their family. Thus,
the culture of the client influences the goals that are
set in the counselling process and the direction of the
counselling too
4.4 Challenges and Strategies for
Counselors
As noted through this essay, counsellors facing
multicultural aspects can experience such issues as
cultural prejudices and misconceptions that distort the
process of counselling. Another problem is that a
counsellor may give clients an idea of what their own
culture deems as appropriate and acceptable and
possibly misunderstand behaviours because they are
viewed from a culturally different lens (Arthur,
2018). For example, a counsellor who grew up using
assertiveness may perceive passive communication
as an act of finesse which is in fact viewed as an act
of respect in some cultures. Such misconceptions can
erode rapport and make it further difficult to involve
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421

clients and make the therapy beneficial. It is also
accompanied by stereotype threat as another barrier.
Clients with a feeling that they are seen through
cultural lenses get stressed and may have lower
output levels or leave (Arthur, 2018). Therefore, this
threat is known to negatively impact individual
performance and hinder the establishment of a good
therapeutic relationship, because clients may retreat
to avoid a stereotype confirmation. This leads to other
misunderstandings, particularly when the clients have
come from cultures where expressing frustration is
prohibited. In such circumstances, distress may
manifest psychologically in somatization, which is
unheard of in the Western world and might be seen as
the clients’ lack of emotional intelligence (Owiti et
al., 2014). Such a disparity is likely to be
counterproductive to the rapport-building process and
diminish interventional density. Thus, some of the
common challenges that a counselling relationship
may face or the client may exhibit include
misunderstandings in the form of misconceptions,
prejudices, lack of understanding, and so on.
In order to address these problems, the usefulness
of evidence-based interventions is crucial. One of the
prominent strategies in these situations is providing
counsellors with cultural competency training which
allows the counsellor to learn about specific
populations, their beliefs, and ways of perceiving and
responding, thereby leading to client satisfaction
(Bihun et al., 2022). Through a review conducted by
the researchers, they found that cultural competence
training enhanced the effectiveness of counsellors
and raised the overall client attendance. The study
depicted that clients depression and anxiety levels and
increase in client’s satisfaction, which in turn
impacted their attendance. Therefore, one of the
proficient strategies is culturally competent training.
On the other hand, another strategy involves using
culturally specific assessment tools. By administering
assessments that are culture-specific rather than
adapted from Western tools, counsellors can tap into
the clients’ experience more effectively (Bihun et al.,
2022). This highlights the cultural adaptation of the
counselling relationship, and the assessments bring
better diagnosis and therapeutic relevance to the
cultural context of clients. Lastly, another strategy is
flexible communication. Reflective listening and the
use of a questioning style allow clients to feel fully
comfortable when speaking within their respective
cultural practices (Cervone & Pervin, 2022). This
highlights that by including these methods, the
counsellor would not just be able to build trust but
also improve the output of the session. Thus, some
strategies include culturally competent training,
providing relevant assessment methods, and flexible
communication.
5 CONCLUSION
The article aimed to understand how culture affects
the prevalence of different personality traits and their
implications in the counselling setting. It argued that
understanding the client and their culture is important
to ensure the success of the therapeutic relationship.
In conclusion, based on the arguments highlighted
above, it can be stated that the differences in
personality can affect psychological counselling with
stress on culture in therapeutic practice. As a result of
analysing theories starting with the Big Five,
Hofstede’s cultural dimensions, and Indigenous
psychology, the role of cultural backgrounds in
various personality traits ranging from extraversion to
romantic relationships and creativity is discovered.
These traits are dependent upon culture, influencing
clients, communication and therapy perception.
These types of insights help counsellors in entering a
therapy session with more importance, cultural
sensitivity, and flexibility of the counsellor.
According to researchers, a skill such as using
culturally appropriate communication, matching
therapy objectives with cultural beliefs, and
practicing culturally sensitive behavior is helpful for
counsellors who want to build sound working
relationships with their clients. The research
supported the benefits of these strategies with specific
details through case studies to show how culturally
competent strategies enhanced counselling. Efforts
that can be made to expand cultural competence in
counseling are not only appropriate for people’s
diversity but also correspond to the global trend in
addressing the need of a diverse population.
Subsequent studies should endeavour to develop and
expand cultural personality differences as a means of
informing, effective cross-cultural counselling
paradigms which may adapt to existing or emerging
societal paradigms. To conclude, with enhanced
knowledge, this relationship between the counsellor
and the client may be made stronger, and counselling
in multicultural societies is made more effective.
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