Meta-Stereotypes’ Impact on Working Memory Capacity

Yuejia Zhou

Faculty of Psychology, Beijing Normal University, 100875 Beijing, China

Keywords: Meta-Stereotype, Working Memory, Choking Effect, Enhancing Effect.

Abstract: Meta-stereotypes are the inherent beliefs that in-group members hold about the evaluations that out-group

members might have about the in-group. Since there are evaluations with both positive and negative valences,

there are meta-stereotypes with both positive and negative valences. These two types of meta-stereotypes may

have different effects based on the principles of reciprocity and non-reciprocity. However, in research on the

impact of meta-stereotypes on working memory capacity, researchers have only found the choking effect of

activating positive meta-stereotypes among rural college students. Similarly, in conditions that activate

negative meta-stereotypes, only the threat effect of activating negative meta-stereotypes has been found

among the elderly and migrant children groups. This may be due to previous studies primarily focusing on

groups that hold more negative meta-stereotypes. Therefore, future research can be conducted across multiple

groups. Additionally, the effects of activating meta-stereotypes are also influenced by the type of meta-

stereotypes being activated. In the future, more specific and effective ways of activating meta-stereotypes can

be developed to distinguish the impact of different types of meta-stereotypes on working memory capacity.

1 INTRODUCTION

Meta-stereotype is a concept that belongs to the realm

of meta-perception, first introduced by Vorauer and

colleagues in 1998 (Vorauer et al., 1998). Meta-

stereotype refers to an individual's beliefs about the

stereotypes that out-group members hold about their

own group (in-group). These meta-stereotypes can

vary depending on the specific out-group individuals

(Dong et al., 2023). Due to the fact that evaluations

from out-groups are often composed of a series of

judgments, which are themselves made up of a series

of negative or positive traits, meta-stereotypes, which

involve different valences of traits, also have positive

or negative valences (Dong et al., 2022). Previous

research has shown that both positive and negative

meta-stereotypes can lead to positive or negative

outcomes, meaning that meta-stereotypes of the same

valence may result in different effects. The reason

why the same meta-stereotype can lead to different

effects is due to adherence to two different principles,

namely the "reciprocal principle" and the "non-

reciprocal principle" (Dong et al., 2022, He & Liang,

2008). The reciprocal principle refers to effects that

correspond to the valence of meta-stereotypes.

Negative meta-stereotypes that lead to negative

impacts can produce a threat effect, while the

activation of positive meta-stereotypes that lead to

positive impacts can produce a boost effect. On the

other hand, the non-reciprocal principle refers to the

activation of meta-stereotypes that produce effects

that do not conform to their inherent valence. That is,

when positive stereotypes are activated, they may

instead produce a negative effect, known as the choke

effect; or when negative meta-stereotypes are

activated, they may produce a positive effect, known

as the backlash effect (Dong et al., 2022).

Previous studies have largely discussed the meta-

stereotypes’ activation of in terms of intergroup

relations and its impact on individuals in social

interactions. However, recent study has found that the

meta-stereotypes’ activation not only affects people's

social interactions but also influences their cognitive

performance. Working memory is the system the

brain uses to temporarily store and manipulate

information during complex cognitive tasks, and it is

often used as a representative task to explain

individual cognitive differences. Therefore, studying

the impact of activated meta-stereotypes on working

memory is an important way to investigate the meta-

stereotypes’ cognitive effects. This article mainly

introduces the impact of activating positive and

negative meta-stereotypes on working memory

capacity through several recent studies, and proposes

the limitations of current research and future research

directions (He et al., 2024).

364

Zhou, Y.

Meta-Stereotypes’ Impact on Working Memory Capacity.

DOI: 10.5220/0014114000004942

Paper published under CC license (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0)

In Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on Applied Psychology and Marketing Management (APMM 2025), pages 364-370

ISBN: 978-989-758-791-7

2 POSITIVE META-

STEREOTYPE’S EFFECTS ON

WORKING MEMORY

CAPACITY

2.1 Effects on Working Memory

Capacity

Based on the feedback principle mentioned earlier,

the effect produced by positive meta-stereotypes is

called the enhancement effect. Since positive meta-

stereotypes reflect the positive evaluation of the in-

group by the out-group, they themselves contain

many positive traits. Therefore, when individuals feel

that they are viewed positively by the out-group, it not

only increases positive feelings but also encourages

individuals to respond to the out-group in a positive

manner (Dong et al., 2022). Previous studies on

positive meta-stereotypes have mainly focused on

exploring the social psychological effects of positive

meta-stereotypes, and there are more researches on

positive meta-stereotypes than that on negative meta-

stereotypes (He et al., 2024). For example, research

on the impact of positive meta-stereotypes on

intergroup emotions and attitudes, but there is a lack

of research on the impact of positive meta-stereotypes

on cognitive functions. Currently, there is a scarcity

of related literature (Dong et al., 2023, Dong et al.,

2022).

The impact of the activation of positive meta-

stereotypes is mainly manifested in two effects: one

is the enhancement effect. Previous research has

found that when individuals feel positively regarded

by the out-group, they increase positive feelings and

reciprocate positively towards the out-group; the

other is the choking effect, which refers to the

situation where individuals, aware of the high

expectations the out-group has for their own group,

feel increased pressure, become overly self-focused,

and even worry and doubt themselves (Dong et al.,

2022). However, research on the activation of

positive meta-stereotypes and its impact on working

memory is relatively scarce. In 2023, Chinese scholar

using rural college students as subjects, conducted

three experiments to investigate the effects of

activating positive meta-stereotypes on working

memory and the mechanisms behind it (Dong et al.,

2023, Belletier et al., 2015).

Researchers activated positive meta-stereotypes

by adopting the method used by Owuamalam and

Zagefka to manipulate the activation of meta-

stereotypes (Owuamalam & Zagefka, 2011). They

asked participants to list the positive impressions that

out-group members hold about in-group members,

and also included a control group that listed issues

unrelated to both the in-group and out-group. After

the meta-stereotype activation manipulation, the

effectiveness of the meta-stereotype activation was

tested by asking participants to rate their perception

of the general views that out-group members have

towards the in-group members (Dong et al., 2023). In

the measurement of working memory tasks,

researchers used the N-back task as a measurement of

working memory. The N-back task asks to

participants responding to whether the currently

presented stimulus is the same as the one that

appeared N positions prior, based on a series of

stimuli and their order as required by the task. The N-

back task can be used to assess various aspects of

working memory, including the ability to update

information, maintain information, and maintain

information in the face of interference. This task is

very useful in studying working memory, attention

control, cognitive training, and brain function and

plasticity. In this study, researchers used the 2-back

task as a difficulty working memory task and the 1-

back task as a simple working memory task.

Theoretically, the 2-back task consumes more

cognitive resource space compared to the 1-back task,

thus presenting participants with greater challenges

when performing the 2-back task. The study used the

activation of positive meta-stereotypes and the

difficulty of working memory tasks as independent

variables and found that under high difficulty tasks,

individuals with activated positive meta-stereotypes

had significantly lower accuracy in working memory

tasks compared to the control group, and their

response times were longer than those in the control

group. However, on low difficulty tasks, there was no

significant difference in working memory

performance between participants with activated

positive meta-stereotypes and those in the control

group. This indicates that the activation of positive

meta-stereotypes has a choking effect on participants

in high difficulty working memory tasks (Dong et al.,

2023).

2.2 The Mechanism by Which Positive

Meta-Stereotypes Affect Working

Memory

Cognitive Resource Theory offers a highly

explanatory power for the choking effect induced by

the activation of positive meta-stereotypes. Research

indicates that when individuals are performing tasks

requiring executive control (such as the N-back task

or Reading span task ), the activation of positive

Meta-Stereotypes’ Impact on Working Memory Capacity

365

meta-stereotype can divert their attention like

monitoring observation, shifting some cognitive

resources towards awareness of the monitor or meta-

stereotype activation, then reducing the cognitive

resources allocated to task execution (Belletier et al.,

2015). This shift in attention is particularly evident in

individuals with high working memory capacity

(WMC), as they are more capable of simultaneously

processing both the task and the presence of the

monitor, making them more susceptible to attentional

conflict and distraction. In high WMC individuals,

this reallocation of resources leads to a decline in

executive control, manifesting as poorer performance

on tasks that demand quick and accurate responses,

known as the choking effect. This aligns with

Cognitive Resource Theory, which posits that under

limited resources, excessive focus on one task may

come at the expense of another's performance, as

available cognitive resources are competitively

directed towards stimulused positive meta-stereotype

(Belletier et al., 2015, Tagler, 2012).

Li's research also found the mediator, approach

motivation and the moderator core self-evaluation.

Which mediates or moderates the positive meta-

stereotypes’s choking effect on working memory.

Using the Bootstrap method in SPSS to evaluate the

mediating effect of approach motivation, it was

shown that approach motivation plays a partial

mediating role in the influence of activated positive

meta-stereotypes on working memory (Li et al.,

2021). Further analysis revealed that when positive

meta-stereotypes had been activated, participants

exhibit stronger approach motivation, which in turn

leads to a decrease in the accuracy of high-difficulty

working memory tasks. This occurs because the

activation of positive meta-stereotypes creates a goal

and expectation for individuals, prompting them to

enhance their approach motivation to prove

themselves. The reason for the reduced allocation of

cognitive resources to working memory is partly due

to participants investing excessive approach

motivation, which consequently lowers the accuracy

of working memory tasks (Dong et al., 2023). The

study also explored the moderating role of core self-

evaluations (CSE) in the choking effect on working

memory tasks caused by the activation of positive

meta-stereotypes. Core self-evaluations refer to an

individual's fundamental assessment of their own

abilities, worth, and self-efficacy. Using the Process

Model 5 in Model Templates for PROCESS for SPSS

and SAS to analyze the moderating effect of CSE,

with positive meta-stereotype activation as the

independent variable, approach motivation as the

mediating variable, and accuracy under high

difficulty conditions as the dependent variable, the

statistical results indicated that the interaction term

between positive meta-stereotype activation and core

self-evaluations significantly predicted the accuracy

of high difficulty tasks(Li et al., 2021). This

demonstrates a significant moderating effect, such

that the higher the core self-evaluations, the greater

the impact of positive meta-stereotype activation on

the accuracy of high difficulty tasks (He et al., 2024,

Li et al., 2021).

Currently, most research on the impact of positive

meta-stereotypes on working memory has found that

positive meta-stereotypes can lead to a choking

effect. However, previous studies have pointed out in

their discussion sections that the choking effect

occurs only in tasks with high cognitive load

requirements, while there are no significant

differences in low-difficulty tasks. Researchers

believe that the choking effect resulting from the

activation of positive meta-stereotypes may be due to

the selection of individuals who hold fewer positive

meta-stereotypes in their daily lives, such as the rural

college student population (Li et al., 2021). When

positive meta-stereotypes are difficult to retrieve, the

process of extracting them may become a source of

stress for individuals, potentially triggering a choking

effect (Vázquez et al., 2017). Therefore, in future

research, it would be beneficial to study groups that

inherently hold more positive meta-stereotypes.

When such groups have their positive meta-

stereotypes activated, will it result in a facilitation

effect on working memory, or will a choking effect

still be observed? Additionally, for individuals with a

greater number of positive meta-stereotypes, will task

difficulty influence the impact of activated positive

meta-stereotypes on working memory capacity?

3 NEGATIVE

META-STEREOTYPE’S

EFFECTS ON WORKING

MEMORY CAPACITY

3.1 The Effect of Negative

Meta-Stereotypes on Working

Memory Capacity

According to the feedback and non-feedback

principles mentioned in the introduction, the feedback

effect of activating negative meta-stereotypes is

manifested as a threat effect. That is, individuals who

activate negative meta-stereotypes find themselves in

a social-psychological predicament, with their

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cognition in a state of imbalance, inducing

experiences of fear and stress, which in turn lead to

negative consequences (Dong et al., 2022). Similarly,

activating negative meta-stereotypes does not always

lead to negative outcomes; it can also have positive

effects, known as the resistance effect of activating

negative meta-stereotypes. The resistance effect

refers to the situation where, after activating negative

meta-stereotypes, individuals perceive the full extent

of negative evaluations and may counter these

evaluations by engaging in positive behaviors to

maintain their group image or prove their capabilities

(Dong et al., 2022).

In 2015, Sun investigated whether the working

memory capacity of migrant children is affected by

negative meta-stereotypes’ activation. In the study,

the approach employed to elicit negative meta-

stereotypes mirrored the technique utilized for

positive ones. This entailed prompting participants to

verbalize the potential negative perceptions that an

outgroup could harbor towards their own ingroup.

Concurrently, the control group was tasked with

responding to a query concerning the advancement of

the nation's scientific and technological progress (He

et al., 2024, Sun et al., 2015). The research proceeded

to assess working memory capacity through the N-

back task, utilizing black solid geometric shapes—

circles, triangles, and rectangles—as visual stimuli.

The experimental protocol included a 500ms interval

for fixation, a period allocated for participant

responses, and a subsequent 500ms interval with a

blank screen. The tasks were categorized by cognitive

demand, with the 0-back, 1-back, and 2-back variants

corresponding to low, medium, and high cognitive

load, respectively. Furthermore, the study's repeated

measures analysis of variance (ANOVA) revealed

that the activation of negative meta-stereotypes

exerted a substantial influence on children's working

memory performance. The analysis also highlighted

a significant main effect attributed to the varying

levels of task difficulty (Sun et al., 2015).

Furthermore, it was observed that participants who

engaged with negative meta-stereotypes exhibited

poorer performance in working memory exercises

across all three tiers of task complexity when

contrasted with the control group that maintained a

neutral stance (Sun et al., 2015).

Li and colleagues conducted a study in 2021 of

how activating negative meta-stereotypes can impact

on the working memory of elderly individuals. This

was the first study to use the N-back task to examine

the effects of activating negative meta-stereotypes on

the cognitive performance of elderly adults under

different cognitive load tasks, this study also used

graphics as stimulus materials (Li et al., 2021).

Researchers examined whether it was possible to

manipulate the activation of negative meta-

stereotypes in the elderly through instructions and the

subsequent answers provided by the elderly based on

those instructions. Emotional responses when

negative meta-stereotypes are triggered were

assessed through emotional scores and physiological

indicators such as skin conductance and skin

temperature. The findings of the study indicated that

a substantial disparity existed in the irritability scores

between the negative meta-stereotype activation

group and the non-irritable group, while there was no

significant difference in the scores of other negative

emotions. Consequently, the repeated measures

ANOVA disclosed that there was no significant

interaction effect between the group and the level of

task difficulty. However, both the difficulty level and

group membership had significant main effects. The

research demonstrated that individuals in the group

that activated negative meta-stereotypes scored lower

on cognitive tasks compared to those in the group

without such activation, thereby validating the notion

that activating negative meta-stereotypes has a

reciprocal impact on cognitive performance.

Additionally, the study found that task difficulty did

not have a moderating effect on the activation of

negative meta-stereotypes (Li et al., 2021). Previous

studies have shown that activating negative meta-

stereotypes can lead individuals to desire a change in

negative evaluations, thereby exhibiting resistance to

these negative traits and demonstrating a positive side

to improve intergroup relations (Dong et al., 2022).

However, there is currently no research on whether

activating negative meta-stereotypes might enhance

an individual's cognitive abilities, thereby producing

a resistance effect.

3.2 The Mechanism of Negative

Meta-Stereotypes’ Affect Working

Memory

Regarding the mechanism of activating negative

meta-stereotypes’ impact on working memory, the

threat effect of activating negative meta-stereotypes

can still be explained by the resource limitation

theory. The resource limitation theory posits that

negative meta-stereotypes trigger physiological stress

responses and induce self-monitoring, which

consume an individual's cognitive resources, leading

to poorer performance on subsequent cognitive tasks

(Dong et al., 2022). Studies on the reduction of

working memory capacity in the elderly caused by the

negative meta-stereotypes’ activation suggest that the

Meta-Stereotypes’ Impact on Working Memory Capacity

367

threat of negative meta-stereotype activation to

cognitive resources may be manifested in two parts.

The first is the conflict between the activation of

negative meta-stereotypes and self-improvement.

This conflict leads to a state of cognitive imbalance,

thereby reducing individuals' self-efficacy in task

completion and affecting cognitive performance. On

the other hand, Li et al. pointed out that for the

elderly, negative evaluations from the outgroup may

lead to a sense of helplessness. Simultaneously, it

raises doubts about their own abilities and threatens

their identification with the ingroup, thereby

triggering negative emotions that occupy the

cognitive resources of the elderly and lead to a decline

in individual working memory capacity (Li et al.,

2021).

Additionally, Sun’s study on the stereotype threat

among migrant children, the potential mediating role

of intergroup anxiety was explored. intergroup

anxiety levels are tested by judging the valence and

familiarity of words related to negative meta-

stereotypes as well as neutral words. Inserting words

related to negative meta-stereotypes and neutral

vocabulary into the N-back task, children were asked

to evaluate the valence and familiarity of these words

to test intergroup anxiety in both the threat and non-

threat groups. The findings of the study demonstrated

that the level of intergroup anxiety was markedly

elevated in the group where negative meta-

stereotypes were activated compared to those where

they were not, thereby validating the hypothesis that

activating negative meta-stereotypes is associated

with increased intergroup anxiety. The research

further established that intergroup anxiety did not

significantly mediate the link between negative meta-

stereotype activation and response times in tasks of

low and high difficulty. However, at the medium

difficulty level, intergroup anxiety was found to fully

mediate this relationship. In conclusion, the study

determined that intergroup anxiety exerted a partial

mediating influence on the impact of activated

negative meta-stereotypes on working memory

performance (Sun et al., 2015). The threat effect of

activating negative meta-stereotypes on a group is a

risk situation experienced by disadvantaged groups in

social contexts. Diffusing negative emotions and

individuals' uncertainty about evaluation can lead to

the generation of anxious negative emotions, which

in turn result in a decline in cognitive performance.

The non-significant mediating role of intergroup

anxiety at low cognitive load may be due to the fact

that the decline in individual working memory

performance is more likely a result of monitoring

behaviour triggered by meta-stereotype threat cues.

That is, after the negative meta-stereotypes’

activation, participants tend to choose more

conservative problem-solving strategies rather than

the role played by intergroup anxiety. As for the non-

significant mediation in high difficulty cognitive

tasks, it may be because complex tasks themselves

consume a lot of cognitive resources, making the

phenomenon of intergroup relations occupying

cognitive resources less apparent (Sun et al., 2015).

The partial mediating effect found in the study

suggests that there may be many possible pathways

through which the activation of negative meta-

stereotypes occupies cognitive resources. Different

mediating variables may play different roles at

different levels of difficulty, and further research can

focus on the specific impacts and models under

different conditions. However, in general, both the

activation of positive meta-stereotypes and negative

meta-stereotypes can be explained by the resource

limitation model in terms of their negative impact on

cognitive abilities such as working memory. Whether

the activation of positive meta-stereotypes and

negative meta-stereotypes can lead to positive effects,

namely the feedback effect and the resistance effect,

in situations with different meta-stereotypes and the

activation of different positive/negative meta-

stereotypes, requires further investigation by

researchers in a broader range of participant groups.

4 DISCUSSION AND

SUGGESTION

4.1 Summery and Discussion

Combining the findings from the aforementioned

research, current studies have discovered that the

meta-stereotypes’ activation at different valences can

have a negative impact on an individual's working

memory capacity. That is, the positive meta-

stereotypes activation leads to a choking-effect on

working memory, while the activation of negative

meta-stereotypes results in a threat effect on working

memory. Researchers believe that the most direct

cause of these two effects is that the activation of

meta-stereotypes occupies an individual's cognitive

resources. According to the resource limitation

theory, the total cognitive resources of an individual

are limited. Therefore, when meta-stereotypes are

activated, the cognitive resources available for

working memory tasks decrease, leading to a decline

in working memory performance. However,

theoretically, based on the feedback theory, the

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activation of positive meta-stereotypes can enhance

an individual's perception of their in-group, so under

conditions where positive meta-stereotypes are

activated, it is possible to achieve positive outcomes.

The reason why the research results differ from the

theory, according to the researchers, is due to the

selection of impoverished college students as the

subject group in the study. Such a subject group

inherently holds more negative impressions, which

leads to a contradiction between self-perception and

meta-stereotypes, thus exhibiting a choking effect.

Similarly, when studying the impact of negative

meta-stereotypes on working memory capacity,

individuals who hold more negative meta-stereotypes

were selected, such as the elderly and migrant

children.

In the study, regarding the activation of meta-

stereotypes, the research mentioned in this article all

employed implicit activation methods, which

required participants to spontaneously retrieve

positive/negative meta-stereotypes about their own

group, thereby activating the meta-stereotypes of

their own group. Implicit activation methods can

effectively activate individuals' positive/negative

meta-stereotypes about their own group, but they do

not control the trait categories of the activated meta-

stereotypes. For example, in cognitive tasks, meta-

stereotypes unrelated to cognitive abilities might be

activated, which could merely occupy the

participants' cognitive resources. This leads to

negative effects whether positive or negative meta-

stereotypes are activated. Moreover, in the

assessment of whether implicit activation was

successful, researchers used relatively indirect

methods. The method of determining whether meta-

stereotypes were successfully activated through

physiological indicators of emotional measures has

the drawback of lacking direct evidence to show

which emotions are related to the activation of meta-

stereotypes, and whether the activated meta-

stereotypes are the sole cause of changes in

participants' emotions. The direct questioning

method, with only one question, is not credible in

terms of reliability and validity.

4.2 Future Research Directions

In future research, first, we can seek to study groups

that hold more positive meta-stereotypes. At the same

time, research has shown that the characteristics of

the meta-stereotypes used for activation can also

affect the effects of activating meta-stereotypes with

different valences. For example, previous researchers

have pointed out that the resistance effect of negative

meta-stereotypes often arises because the

characteristic is related to enhancing group image and

interests (Dong et al., 2022). In this series of studies,

the activation method used by researchers requires

implicit activation from the participants, which means

that the type of meta-stereotype activated is

uncontrollable. For cognitive tasks such as working

memory, activating positive/negative meta-

stereotypes related to cognitive abilities or personal

abilities might yield new findings. The impact of

activating meta-stereotypes with different effects

may be influenced by the difficulty of meta-

stereotype retrieval, individual internal resources, the

degree of individualization of meta-stereotypes, and

the social status of the group. These variables could

all affect the influence of activated meta-stereotypes

on individual cognitive abilities. In future research,

these variables can be used as mediating or

moderating variables to further explore the

mechanisms by which activated meta-stereotypes

affect cognitive processing abilities such as working

memory.

Additionally, in terms of activation methods and

testing, future researchers can develop more

systematic and direct ways to test the effectiveness of

meta-stereotype activation methods, or directly

develop a set of questionnaires with generalizable

reliability and validity.

5 CONCLUSION

Meta-stereotypes are the inherent beliefs held by in-

group members about the potential evaluations that

out-group members might have towards the in-group.

Since there are evaluations with both positive and

negative valences, there are meta-stereotypes with

both positive and negative valences. These two types

of meta-stereotypes may have different effects based

on the principles of reciprocity and non-reciprocity.

Only choking effect of simulating the positive meta-

stereotype was found through N-back tasks of varying

difficulty. Similarly, in conditions that activate

negative meta-stereotypes, only the threat effect of

activating negative meta-stereotypes has been found

among the elderly and migrant children groups. This

may be because previous studies have mainly focused

on groups that generally hold more negative meta-

stereotypes. Therefore, future research can be

conducted across multiple groups. Moreover, the

effects of activating meta-stereotypes are also

influenced by the type of meta-stereotypes being

activated. In the future, more specific and effective

methods for activating meta-stereotypes can be

Meta-Stereotypes’ Impact on Working Memory Capacity

369

developed to differentiate the impact of different

types of meta-stereotypes on working memory

capacity.

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