The Impact of Grandparenting on the Learning Engagement of

Left-Behind Children in Rural Primary Schools

Ying Han

1,*

, Yining Jiang

and Zhenyao Li

College of Agronomy, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, 712100, China

College of Education and Sports, Yangtze University, Jingzhou, 434007, China

Calligraphy Academy, Xianyang Normal University, Xianyang, 712000, China

Keywords: Education of Left-Behind Children, Intergenerational Parenting Style, Learning Engagement, Parenting Style.

Abstract. The education of left-behind children has garnered significant attention, with intergenerational parenting

identified as a critical factor, although its specific mechanisms remain unclear. This study focuses on left-

behind children in rural elementary schools, specifically those in grades 3 to 6. Using the Learning

Engagement Scale and the Intergenerational Parenting Style Questionnaire, 300 questionnaires were

distributed offline through cluster sampling, and multiple analytical methods were employed. The findings

indicate that: (1) the guiding parenting style is the most effective for fostering children’s learning engagement,

while the neglectful style performs the worst. Indulgent parenting is associated with low attention levels,

whereas authoritarian parenting results in good attention but weak intrinsic motivation. (2) The nurturing

dimension of intergenerational parenting positively correlates with vigor and motivation in learning

engagement, while the psychological pressure dimension has a moderate positive effect on motivation and

attention. However, excessive pressure yields negative effects. These findings provide theoretical support and

practical guidance for improving the educational conditions of left-behind children.

1 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Research Background

The educational issues of left-behind children, as a

special group, have become a focal point in China’s

education field. Intergenerational education, as an

atypical family education model, has a significant

impact on the learning engagement of left-behind

children. On the one hand, the elderly often dote on

left-behind children and take good care of them in

daily life; on the other hand, due to differences in age

and knowledge structure, the elderly may not be able

to provide sufficient support and guidance for the

children’s learning. In this situation, left-behind

children may lack motivation and attention in their

studies, which in turn affects their learning

engagement. Previous researchers have conducted

studies on the influencing factors of left-behind

children’s learning engagement, but the deeper

reasons behind it still need further exploration.

Therefore, this study analyzes the specific impact of

intergenerational education on learning engagement

* Corresponding author

through questionnaires for left-behind children and

explores how to more effectively promote their

learning and development under this circumstance.

Thus, this paper takes left-behind children as the

research object to explore the impact of

intergenerational education on their learning

engagement. It is hoped that the research results can

provide theoretical support and practical guidance for

improving the educational situation of left-behind

children and enhancing their learning effectiveness.

1.2 Literature Review

Grandparenting refers to the phenomenon where

grandparents take on the responsibility of raising and

educating their grandchildren in the absence of

parents. The concept of grandparenting includes the

role of grandparents in education, differences in

educational methods, the impact on children's

psychology and behavior, and the influence of the

social and cultural background. Grandparenting can

mainly be classified into three categories: (1)

participation style: This includes complete

Han, Y., Jiang, Y. and Li, Z.

The Impact of Grandparenting on the Learning Engagement of Left-Behind Children in Rural Primary Schools.

DOI: 10.5220/0014110200004942

Paper published under CC license (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0)

In Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on Applied Psychology and Marketing Management (APMM 2025), pages 177-183

ISBN: 978-989-758-791-7

177

grandparenting (where grandparents independently

raise the children, such as with left-behind children)

and incomplete grandparenting (where grandparents

and parents jointly raise the children, such as with

'weekend parents'); (2) participation time: Based on

the amount of time grandparents care for the children,

it is divided into dominant (when grandparents spend

more time than parents) and auxiliary (when

grandparents spend an equal amount of time as

parents); (3) care responsibility: This includes

whether grandparents take on full or partial

responsibility for raising the children.

Grandparenting is a common phenomenon both

domestically and internationally, but the

manifestation of grandparenting differs between

China and the West due to cultural differences (Lu et

al., 2020).

Lu Furong et al. conducted a study based on long-

term data of left-behind children both in China,

analyzing the multiple effects of grandparental care

on these children's physical, psychological, and social

development (Lu et al., 2020). The study delves into

the 'double-edged sword' effect of grandparenting on

left-behind children. However, the grandparenting

model, being lagging behind the natural growth

patterns of children and the social development

process, has actual adverse effects on children's

development. This model not only affects the

physical and psychological development of children,

but it may also lower the overall quality of future

generations, thereby restricting further societal

development and progress (Zhou, 2013). With the

increasing phenomenon of rural parents working

away from home, grandparental care has become an

unavoidable part of the growth process for many left-

behind children. Parents play an irreplaceable role in

children's development (Holdworth, 2004). For

children who lack parental companionship, especially

rural left-behind children, their physical and

psychological development faces more challenges,

which necessitates greater attention and support from

society.

The impact of grandparenting on left-behind

children is multifaceted, affecting not only their

mental health, behavior, academic performance, and

social adaptation, but also having long-term effects

on their personality and emotional development.

Pilkauskas et al. studied the characteristics of

'grandparent families' in the U.S. context, where

grandparents are the primary caregivers, and focused

on the relationship and dynamics between

grandparents, non-resident parents (non-custodial

parents), and children (Pilkauskas & Dunifon, 2016).

The study found that while the stable care provided

by grandparents somewhat mitigates the impact of

absent parents, grandparent families often faced low

socio-economic status and limited resources, which

may negatively affect children's cognitive and

emotional development. Additionally, it was noted

that children in grandparent families tend to perform

lower academically than those in traditional two-

parent households. Academic development is an

important task in the growth of children and

adolescents, and both society and families have

continuous expectations regarding their academic

achievements (Carmona-Halty et al., 2021).

As a crucial part of academic development,

learning engagement refers to the sustained positive

attitudes and motivation that individuals exhibit

during the learning process, and learning engagement

is positively correlated with academic performance

(Chen et al., 2021). Research shows that learning

engagement not only influences academic

achievement but is also related to physical and mental

health development (Chen et al., 2021). Therefore,

learning engagement holds significant importance in

children's development. Family relationships have a

notable impact on learning engagement. Research

results show that positive family relationships, such

as parental support and involvement, are positively

correlated with students' learning engagement, while

family conflict or lack of support may lead to a

decrease in learning engagement, further affecting

academic performance (Fute et al., 2024).

Previous studies indicate that the learning

engagement of rural left-behind children is influenced

by various factors, with parental expectations directly

or indirectly impacting the learning engagement of

left-behind children (Zhang et al., 2020). Therefore,

under the unique context of grandparenting in rural

China, it has a multi-dimensional impact on left-

behind children's physical and mental health, as well

as their academic development. Although

grandparents can to some extent fill the gap caused by

the absence of parents, the limitations of

grandparenting—due to their educational background,

economic conditions, and social support—also

present certain challenges. Consequently,

policymakers should pay attention to this

phenomenon and adopt measures to improve the

quality of grandparental care, thereby enhancing the

growth environment and development potential of

left-behind children.

1.3 Research Questions

Existing studies have explored the relationship

among intergenerational parenting models, left-

APMM 2025 - International Conference on Applied Psychology and Marketing Management

178

behind children and their learning engagement, but

several issues remain unresolved. First, while prior

Chinese research has suggested that intergenerational

parenting may impact left-behind children’s learning

engagement, the specific mechanisms of this

influence require further investigation. For example,

it remains unclear how specific factors within

intergenerational parenting—such as guardians’

parenting styles, cultural literacy, or emotional

support—affect children’s learning attitudes,

motivation, and strategies. Second, although some

studies have pointed out that intergenerational

parenting may lead to psychological challenges for

left-behind children (e.g., introverted personalities or

unhealthy psychological development), these studies

have not thoroughly examined how such challenges

influence the psychological mechanisms underlying

learning engagement. To address these issues, this

study focuses on left-behind children and investigates

the effects of intergenerational parenting on their

learning engagement. The study hypothesizes that: (1)

Neglectful and indulgent intergenerational parenting

styles may lead to reduced learning motivation and

lower learning engagement among left-behind

children. Conversely, guiding and authoritarian

caregiving styles may stimulate learning motivation

and enhance learning engagement. (2) Emotional

support and learning guidance provided within

intergenerational parenting positively influence

learning engagement among left-behind children.

Emotional support enhances their sense of belonging

and security, while learning guidance improves their

learning abilities and outcomes.

2 RESEARCH METHODS

2.1 Research Subjects and Specific

Quantitative Research Methods

Used

This study employs stratified sampling, with the

research subjects being left-behind children in grades

3 to 6 at a rural elementary school in a southwestern

region of China. The gender ratio of the subjects is

approximately balanced, and the students are within

the age range of 9 to 12 years old. The sample size is

210, with no fewer than 30 participants from each

grade. The parents of the participants work away from

home year-round, and the children are cared for by

their grandparents or other relatives. Since most

grandparents are illiterate, and in consideration of the

practical situation, the survey on the parenting styles

of grandfathers and grandmothers will be filled out by

the students themselves. The study aims to assess the

grandparental care model and its impact on the

children's learning engagement. The goal of this

research is to explore the differences in learning

engagement under the background of grandparenting

and to identify potential influencing factors.

2.2 Scale Description

2.2.1 Learning Engagement

The Learning Engagement Scale is adopted (Lam et

al., 2014). This scale consists of 10 items and includes

3 dimensions, namely the “vigor” dimension (e.g., “I

feel energetic when studying” and “Even if my

studies do not go well, I am not discouraged and can

persevere”), the “motivation” dimension (e.g., “My

purpose of learning is clear, and I think learning is

very meaningful”), and the “concentration”

dimension (e.g., “Time flies when I am studying”).

Students fill out the questionnaire, which uses a 5-

point rating scale from “1 completely disagree” to “5

completely agree”, with higher scores indicating a

higher level of individual learning engagement.

2.2.2 Grandparenting Methods

The questionnaire used in this study is an adaptation

of the Parent Behavior Report (PBR), designed to

evaluate grandparents’ parenting behaviors toward

their grandchildren. The original PBR questionnaire

included three dimensions: Acceptance/Rejection,

Psychological Autonomy/Psychological Control, and

Strict/Permissive Control. The revised

Grandparenting Behavior Questionnaire simplifies

these dimensions into two: Nurturance and

Psychological Pressure. The first dimension—

Nurturance: This dimension evaluates the warmth,

care, and affection grandparents show toward their

grandchildren. It includes 12 items, such as “I often

smile at my grandchildren” and “I care about and

support my grandchildren.” The second dimension—

Psychological Pressure: This dimension assesses the

psychological stress, demands, and constraints

imposed by grandparents on their grandchildren.It

consists of 10 items. The scoring system uses a 3-

point Likert scale: 1 = “It’s not at all like my situation;”

2 = “It’s somewhat like my situation;” and 3 = “It’s

very much like my situation.” For the Nurturance

dimension, the score is calculated by summing the

scores of all 12 items, dividing by 12, and then

multiplying by 10. For the Psychological Pressure

dimension, the score is the total sum of all item scores.

The Impact of Grandparenting on the Learning Engagement of Left-Behind Children in Rural Primary Schools

179

As for the parenting style classification: Based on the

median scores for Nurturance and Psychological

Pressure, four parenting styles are identified:

Inductive (high Nurturance, low Psychological

Pressure), Indulgent (high Nurturance, high

Psychological Pressure), authoritarian (low

Nurturance, high Psychological Pressure) and

Indifferent (low Nurturance, low Psychological

Pressure) Moreover, the internal consistency

reliability (Cronbach’s alpha) of the Nurturance

subscale in this study is 0.84, and its split-half

reliability is 0.83. The internal consistency reliability

of the Psychological Pressure subscale is 0.82, with a

split-half reliability of 0.81. Both subscales

demonstrate high levels of internal consistency and

split-half reliability, indicating the stability and

reliability of the questionnaire in measurement. The

questionnaire is based on the existing Parent Behavior

Questionnaire (PBR), retaining its core content and

making appropriate adjustments for the Chinese

cultural context to ensure content validity.

2.3 Data Analysis Methods

The questionnaire survey was conducted offline,

targeting students in grades 3 to 6 at a rural

elementary school. A total of 300 questionnaires were

distributed, and the collected data were processed

using SPSS. First, invalid questionnaires were

excluded, and missing data were handled, resulting in

175 valid responses. Descriptive statistical analysis

was then used to summarize the basic characteristics

of the sample, and correlation analysis was conducted

to test the research hypotheses. Specifically, the

methods used included: (1) Descriptive statistics,

which were employed to present the basic

characteristics of the sample and the mean and

standard deviation of learning engagement and

grandparental care dimensions; (2) Reliability testing,

with Cronbach’s α used to assess the internal

consistency of the questionnaire; (3) Correlation

analysis, where the correlation coefficients between

learning engagement and the dimensions of

grandparenting were calculated to reveal the

relationships between variables.

3 RESULTS AND ANALYSIS

3.1 Descriptive Statistics

3.1.1 Scale Consistency Test

A total of 175 valid questionnaires were collected in

this survey, with 87 responses from male students and

88 from female students. The questionnaire was

divided into two scales: the Grandparent Behavior

Scale and the Learning Engagement Scale. The

Grandparent Behavior Scale contains 10 items,

primarily used to assess the behaviors or methods

employed by grandparents in the grandparenting

process of left-behind children in rural elementary

schools. As shown in Table 1, the internal consistency

reliability of this scale is 0.644, which is considered

moderate. The Learning Engagement Scale also

contains 10 items, mainly assessing the students'

engagement in learning, including three dimensions:

learning motivation, concentration, and vitality. The

internal consistency reliability of this scale is 0.843,

indicating that it has very good internal consistency.

Table 1: Results of reliability analysis

Subscale Number of Items (N) Internal Consistency Reliability (α)

Grandparenting Behavior 10 0.644

Learning Engagement 10 0.843

3.1.2 The Impact of Different

Grandparenting Methods on the

Learning Engagement of Left-Behind

Children in Rural Primary Schools

After comparing the leaning engagement scores, it is

revealed that among the four types of grandparenting

styles, the guiding style yielded the best results across

all dimensions, particularly in learning motivation

and overall learning engagement. This indicates that

the guiding style is the most effective parenting

method, significantly enhancing children's learning

enthusiasm, vitality, motivation, and concentration.

In contrast, children raised under the neglectful style

performed the worst across all dimensions, especially

in concentration and overall learning engagement,

suggesting that this style may lead to a lack of

learning motivation and engagement, making it

difficult to improve learning quality effectively.

Although children raised under the indulgent style

showed some motivation and vitality, their

concentration was low, and their overall learning

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engagement was relatively weak. This suggests that

overindulgence may weaken children's self-control,

affecting learning outcomes. Students raised under

the authoritarian style performed better in

concentration, but showed weakness in motivation

and vitality. This indicates that overly strict discipline

may increase concentration but lacks intrinsic

motivation and enthusiasm, which could negatively

affect long-term learning outcomes for children.

3.2 The Impact of Different

Dimensions of Grandparenting on

the Various Dimensions of

Learning Engagement of

Left-Behind Children in Rural

Primary Schools

As mentioned above, grandparenting can be divided

into parenting dimensions and psychological stress

dimensions, while learning engagement can be

divided into three dimensions: motivation,

concentration, and vitality. The study further analyzes

the impact of different dimensions of grandparenting

styles on the learning engagement of left-behind

children in rural elementary schools from the

perspective of various learning engagement

dimensions. Correlation analysis shows that different

dimensions of grandparenting styles have varying

effects on the different dimensions of learning

engagement in left-behind children. As shown in

Table 2, there is a positive correlation between the

parenting dimension and the vitality dimension; the

parenting dimension also shows a significant positive

correlation with the motivation dimension, indicating

a positive relationship between the two; however,

there is no significant correlation between the

parenting dimension and the concentration dimension.

The psychological stress dimension shows no

significant correlation with the vitality dimension; it

has a significant positive correlation with the

motivation dimension, indicating a positive

relationship between the two; and there is a positive

correlation between the psychological stress

dimension and the concentration dimension.

Table 2: Results of correlation analysis.

Parenting

Score

Psycholog

ical

Stress

Score

Vitality

Dimensi

Score

Motivation

Dimension

Score

Focus Dimen

sion

Score

Parenting Score Pearson Correlation 1 0.035 .268** .242** 0.134

Significance(2-tailed)

0.646 0 0.001 0.077

Psychological Stres

s Score

Pearson Correlation 0.035 1 0.124 .188* .330**

Significance(2-tailed) 0.646

0.103 0.013 0

Vitality Dimension

Score

Pearson Correlation .268** 0.124 1 .631** .443**

Significance(2-tailed) 0 0.103

0 0

Motivation Dimensi

on Score

Pearson Correlation .242** .188* .631** 1 .623**

Significance(2-tailed) 0.001 0.013 0

Focus Dimension S

core

Pearson Correlation 0.134 .330** .443** .623** 1

Significance(2-tailed) 0.077 0 0 0

N 175 175 175 175 175

Note:** Significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed); * Significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed)

Therefore, higher parenting scores from

grandparents help to increase the vitality and

motivation levels of left-behind children, resulting in

stronger learning engagement. Higher psychological

stress scores have a certain positive impact on

children's learning motivation and concentration.

Students with higher levels of stress tend to perform

better in motivation and concentration. Based on

these results, the positive influence of the parenting

dimension on learning engagement is primarily

reflected in the students' vitality and motivation,

while the psychological stress dimension may

The Impact of Grandparenting on the Learning Engagement of Left-Behind Children in Rural Primary Schools

181

promote learning engagement by enhancing students'

motivation and concentration. However, excessively

high levels of stress may have negative effects.

Therefore, both grandparents and left-behind children

need to balance psychological stress in their daily

lives.

4 DISCUSSION

The research results of Lu Furong et al. found that

intergenerational upbringing has a significant impact

on the learning engagement of left-behind children,

pointing out that intergenerational upbringing has

both positive and negative aspects, which is also

confirmed in this paper (Lu et al., 2020). It also

echoes the research of Chen et al., both of which

emphasize the important role of learning engagement

in children’s development and believe that learning

engagement is positively correlated with academic

performance (Chen e al., 2021). The current study is

also consistent with prior studies, finding that family

relationships have a significant impact on learning

engagement, indicating that positive family

relationships are positively correlated with students’

learning engagement (Fute et al., 2024; Liu et al.,

2022).

However, there are also some differences. For

example, the current study uses quantitative research

methods to analyze the impact of intergenerational

education on learning engagement through

questionnaires and scale assessments, while previous

studies may rely more on qualitative analysis or case

studies. The current study also delves into how

specific factors in intergenerational upbringing (such

as the guardians’ parenting methods, cultural literacy,

emotional support, etc.) affect the learning attitudes,

learning motivation, and learning strategies of left-

behind children, while previous studies did not

explore these specific mechanisms in such depth. The

current study provides specific data and analysis

results, such as the impact of different

intergenerational upbringing methods on each

dimension of learning engagement. Different studies

may have different research purposes and focuses.

The current study focuses more on the learning

engagement of rural left-behind children, while

previous studies may more broadly explore the

impact of intergenerational upbringing on children’s

development.

Parental parenting styles can be divided into three

types: authoritative, authoritarian, and permissive.

Authoritative parents usually adopt supportive

parenting methods such as warmth and support,

understanding and guidance, and behavioral

supervision; authoritarian parents often use

controlling parenting methods such as scolding,

corporal punishment, and psychological control;

permissive parents often use indulgent parenting

methods, such as spoiling, indulging, being tolerant,

and not constraining. This study divides

intergenerational upbringing into four types:

instructive, indulgent, authoritarian, and neglectful.

Instructive grandparents score higher in upbringing

and psychological pressure and can significantly

enhance children’s learning enthusiasm, vitality,

motivation, and concentration; indulgent

grandparents have certain motivation and vitality, but

their concentration is lower, and their overall learning

engagement is weaker; authoritarian grandparents

perform better in the concentration dimension, but are

weaker in motivation and vitality; neglectful

grandparents perform the worst in all dimensions,

which may lead to children lacking learning

motivation and engagement. There are significant

differences between parental parenting styles and

intergenerational upbringing styles in terms of

parenting style classification, etc. Parental parenting

styles usually have a more direct and significant

impact, while intergenerational upbringing styles

have a unique impact on children’s development in

specific social and cultural contexts.

5 CONCLUSION

This study investigates the impact of

intergenerational parenting on the learning

engagement of left-behind children in rural primary

schools. In rural areas, the migration of parents for

work often leaves children in the care of their

grandparents, making intergenerational parenting a

prevalent practice. Given that learning engagement is

crucial for academic development, it has garnered

sustained attention from both society and families.

On the impact of parenting styles: Inductive

parenting proves to be the most effective for

enhancing children’s learning engagement, as it

fosters learning enthusiasm, vitality, motivation, and

concentration. Indifferent parenting performs the

worst, resulting in low learning motivation and poor

concentration. Indulgent parenting reduces children’s

focus and weakens self-discipline. Authoritarian

parenting, while improving concentration, may

adversely affect learning outcomes in the long run

due to weakened intrinsic motivation. About the

influence of parenting dimensions: The nurturance

dimension is significantly and positively correlated

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182

with learning vitality and motivation. A higher

nurturance score contributes to improved engagement.

The psychological pressure dimension shows a

positive correlation with learning motivation and

concentration. While moderate pressure can be

beneficial, excessive psychological pressure has

negative effects, highlighting the need for a balanced

approach in practice.

In summary, grandparents should improve their

educational literacy, avoid extreme parenting styles,

provide children with autonomy, strengthen

emotional care, and actively guide their learning. At

the societal level, greater attention and support are

needed to provide educational resources, establish

psychological counseling services, and improve the

learning and development environment for left-

behind children. As for the significance, this study

deepens the understanding of the relationship and

mechanisms between intergenerational parenting and

children’s learning engagement. It enriches research

on the education of left-behind children, provides

empirical evidence for subsequent studies, and

contributes to the refinement of family education

theories, particularly regarding the influence of

intergenerational parenting on children’s learning.

Moreover, it offers practical guidance for improving

the education of left-behind children by helping

educators design personalized strategies, encouraging

parents to adjust their parenting behaviors, and

supporting policymakers in formulating relevant

policies. These efforts aim to enhance rural education

quality and promote social equity and development.

AUTHORS CONTRIBUTION

All the authors contributed equally and their names

were listed in alphabetical order.

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