Enhancing Young Children’s Storytelling Skills Through

Teacher-Designed E-Storybooks: Impact of Digital Media on

Narrative Competence

Tisna Syafnita

, Mohd Fitri Bin Yusoff

,Elise Muryanti

, Mutia Afnida

,Lili Mulyani

Harlina Ramelan

, Imam Muthie

and Amalia Husna

Department of Early Childhood Teacher Education, Faculty of Education, Universitas Negeri Padang, Indonesia

School of Creative Industry Management & Performing Arts, Universiti Utara Malaysia, Malaysia

Keywords: E-Storybooks, Storytelling Skills, Early Childhood Education, Teacher-Designed Media, Digital Storytelling.

Abstract: This study examined the effectiveness of teacher-designed e-storybooks in enhancing storytelling skills

among 30 children aged 5-6. While commercial e-storybooks often prioritize entertainment over pedagogy,

teacher-created versions offer developmentally appropriate, contextually relevant learning experiences. A

quasi-experimental design compared an experimental group using teacher-designed e-storybooks against a

control group receiving conventional instruction. Storytelling abilities were assessed using a rubric measuring

eight key aspects: story structure, sequencing, character/setting recognition, descriptive vocabulary,

coherence, emotional expression, verbal delivery, and engagement. Results demonstrated significantly greater

improvement in the experimental group. Their mean gain score was 13.5, compared to 4.5 in the control

group. An independent samples t-test confirmed this difference was statistically significant (p < 0.001). These

findings indicate that teacher-designed e-storybooks, developed with pedagogical intentionality, substantially

enhance children's narrative competence, expressive language skills, and fluency. The study underscores the

importance of equipping early childhood educators with digital design skills. When teachers act as

instructional media designers, they create powerful tools that support holistic literacy development through

engaging, meaningful, and personalized digital storytelling.

1 INTRODUCTION

The early childhood period (ages 4-6) represents a

critical window for language and literacy

development, where storytelling skills serve as

foundational competencies for communication, social

cognition, and academic readiness, National

Association for the Education of Young Children

(NAEYC, 2020). This developmental stage is

characterized by remarkable neuroplasticity, with

children's brains forming thousands of neural

connections per second, making it an optimal time for

https://orcid.org/0009-0008-6033-9360

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https://orcid.org/0009-0001-8121-9957

https://orcid.org/0009-0009-1125-8860

https://orcid.org/0009-0006-7033-4892

language acquisition and narrative skill development

(Shonkoff & Phillips, 2000). Storytelling serves as a

comprehensive developmental tool that

simultaneously engages multiple cognitive domains -

linguistic, social-emotional, and executive

functioning (Whitebread & Basilio, 2012). As

children engage with stories, whether as listeners or

creators, they are not merely absorbing vocabulary

but are actively constructing mental models of

narrative structure, cause-and-effect relationships,

and social scripts (Bruner, 1990).

Syafnita, T., Yusoff, M. F. B., Muryanti, E., Afnida, M., Mulyani, L., Ramelan, H., Muthie, I. and Husna, A.

Enhancing Young Children’s Storytelling Skills Through Teacher-Designed E-Storybooks: Impact of Digital Media on Narrative Competence.

DOI: 10.5220/0014068800004935

Paper published under CC license (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0)

In Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Early Childhood Education (ICECE 2025) - Meaningful, Mindful, and Joyful Learning in Early Childhood Education, pages 74-80

ISBN: 978-989-758-788-7; ISSN: 3051-7702

During this formative stage, children begin

developing narrative competence—the ability to

comprehend, construct, and coherently convey

stories—which involves understanding story

structure, using descriptive vocabulary, and

sequencing events logically (Hudson & Shapiro,

2019). This competence emerges through a

predictable developmental sequence, beginning with

simple labeling of pictures, progressing to action

descriptions, and eventually evolving into complete

narratives with clear beginnings, middles, and ends

(Stein & Glenn, 1979). The development of narrative

skills is deeply intertwined with Theory of Mind

development, as children learn to understand and

articulate characters' motivations, emotions, and

perspectives (Dore et al., 2018). Furthermore,

narrative competence provides the foundation for

academic discourse patterns required in later

schooling, such as providing evidence for claims or

explaining processes (Uccelli et al., 2019).

This crucial skill set not only predicts future

literacy achievement but also enables children to

express emotional experiences and construct personal

identity through narrative (Nicolopoulou et al., 2015).

The act of storytelling serves as a form of self-

regulation, allowing children to process and make

sense of their experiences (Fivush et al., 2006).

Autobiographical narratives, in particular, help

children develop a coherent sense of self across time,

integrating past experiences with present

circumstances and future possibilities (Habermas &

Bluck, 2000). Moreover, shared storytelling

experiences create opportunities for social bonding

and cultural transmission, as children learn the values,

beliefs, and norms of their communities through the

stories they hear and tell (Miller et al., 2012).

Research demonstrates that strong narrative

skills in preschool correlate with better reading

comprehension and academic performance in later

schooling (Griffin et al., 2021). Longitudinal studies

have shown that children's narrative abilities at age 5

significantly predict their reading comprehension

scores in fourth grade, even after controlling for other

cognitive and linguistic factors (O'Neill et al., 2004).

This predictive relationship exists because narrative

competence reflects and contributes to children's

ability to construct mental models of text, make

inferences, and monitor comprehension—skills that

are essential for proficient reading (Perfetti et al.,

2005). Additionally, children with strong narrative

skills tend to have better-developed phonological

awareness and vocabulary knowledge, which further

supports their literacy development (Dickinson &

McCabe, 2001).

Despite the well-established importance of

narrative development, many children experience

limited access to high-quality story materials,

vocabulary gaps, and insufficient meaningful

interactions with narrative texts (Dickinson &

Porche, 2019). These disparities often fall along

socioeconomic lines, with children from lower-

income families hearing approximately 30 million

fewer words by age 4 than their more affluent peers

(Hart & Risley, 1995). Furthermore, the quality of

language interactions varies significantly, with

children in poverty more likely to experience

directive rather than elaborative language input (Hoff,

2013). These early gaps in language exposure and

narrative engagement contribute to the persistent

achievement gap observed in later schooling (Fernald

et al., 2013).

The digital age has compounded these issues, as

commercially available e-storybooks frequently

incorporate excessive interactive features like

distracting animations and embedded games that

divert children's attention from core story content

(Bus et al., 2020). Research has identified what is

termed the "vanishing attention phenomenon," where

children's recall of story details decreases as the

number of interactive elements increases (Takacs et

al., 2015). These extraneous features often create split

attention effects, where children must divide their

cognitive resources between processing the narrative

and engaging with interactive elements (Sweller,

2005). As a result, while children may report greater

enjoyment of highly interactive e-books, their actual

comprehension and retention of story content often

suffers (Parish-Morris et al., 2013).

Empirical studies reveal that irrelevant

multimedia elements can create cognitive overload,

impairing children's ability to independently

reconstruct and retell stories (Takacs & Bus, 2021).

This cognitive overload stems from the limited

capacity of children's working memory, which can

become overwhelmed when required to process

multiple streams of information simultaneously

(Baddeley, 2012). When cognitive resources are

depleted by processing extraneous multimedia

elements, fewer resources remain available for the

deep processing required for narrative

comprehension and retention (Mayer, 2014). This

effect is particularly pronounced for children with

weaker attentional control, who may struggle to filter

out irrelevant stimuli (Diamond, 2013).

Furthermore, most commercial digital

storybooks lack pedagogical intentionality, failing to

align with children's developmental needs or

curricular goals (Kucirkova, 2019). These products

Enhancing Young Children’s Storytelling Skills Through Teacher-Designed E-Storybooks: Impact of Digital Media on Narrative

Competence

are often designed by software engineers rather than

educators, resulting in a disconnect between the

technological features and sound pedagogical

principles (Hirsh-Pasek et al., 2015). Additionally,

the commercial nature of these products means they

are designed for broad appeal rather than specific

learning outcomes, often sacrificing educational

value for entertainment value (Guernsey et al., 2012).

This situation creates a need for digital story materials

that are both developmentally appropriate and

pedagogically sound—qualities that are most likely to

be achieved when educators are involved in the

design process.

Teachers possess unique insights into children's

developmental needs and learning objectives,

enabling them to create pedagogically appropriate e-

storybooks (Lisenbee & Ford, 2020). Their daily

interactions with students provide them with intimate

knowledge of children's interests, linguistic abilities,

and cultural backgrounds—information that is crucial

for creating engaging and effective learning materials

(Mishra & Koehler, 2006). Teachers are also acutely

aware of curricular goals and standards, allowing

them to align story content with specific learning

objectives (Shulman, 1987). Furthermore, teachers'

understanding of classroom dynamics enables them

to design materials that facilitate meaningful social

interactions around stories, rather than isolating

children with individual devices (Vygotsky, 1978).

Teacher-designed e-storybooks offer several

research-backed advantages: (1) developmental

appropriateness—content tailored to children's

comprehension levels (Mayer, 2020); (2) contextual

relevance—themes and vocabulary aligned with

curriculum standards (Roskos et al., 2021); and (3)

pedagogical intentionality—multimedia features

purposefully designed to enhance narrative

understanding rather than merely entertain (Parish-

Morris et al., 2018). These custom materials can

incorporate culturally responsive content that reflects

children's lived experiences (Ladson-Billings, 1995),

include appropriate scaffolding for diverse learners

(Wood et al., 1976), and provide multiple means of

representation and engagement in line with Universal

Design for Learning principles (Rose & Meyer,

2002). When teachers are empowered to create digital

stories, they can ensure that technology serves

pedagogical goals rather than driving them.

The current study addresses three primary

research objectives: (1) examining the impact of

teacher-designed e-storybooks on children's narrative

structure, lexical complexity, and story coherence

(Sénéchal et al., 2021); (2) analyzing the

effectiveness of specific digital features (e.g., limited

interactivity, bilingual audio) in supporting narrative

development (Aladé et al., 2020); and (3) developing

an evidence-based e-storybook design framework

that integrates digital literacy principles with teachers'

pedagogical expertise (Guernsey & Levine, 2022).

This research is grounded in sociocultural theory,

which emphasizes the importance of culturally

mediated tools for cognitive development (Vygotsky,

1978), and cognitive load theory, which provides

guidelines for optimizing multimedia learning

(Sweller et al., 2011). By investigating both the

outcomes and processes of teacher-designed e-

storybook implementation, the study aims to

contribute both theoretical insights and practical tools

for early childhood educators.

By foregrounding the teacher's role as both

educator and media designer, this research

contributes to the growing body of literature on

developmentally appropriate technology use in early

childhood education, while also offering practical,

scalable strategies for improving early literacy

outcomes in the digital age. The study builds on

previous work in educational technology integration

(Ertmer & Ottenbreit-Leftwich, 2010), teacher design

knowledge (Kali et al., 2015), and early childhood

literacy instruction (Neuman & Dickinson, 2011). Its

findings have the potential to inform teacher

education programs, educational technology

development, and early childhood curriculum design,

ultimately leading to more effective support for

young children's narrative development in

increasingly digital learning environments.

2 METHOD

This study employed a quasi-experimental pretest-

posttest design with a nonequivalent control group to

examine the effects of teacher-designed e-storybooks

on young children's storytelling abilities (Creswell &

Creswell, 2018). Thirty children aged 4-6 years

(M=5.2 years, SD=0.6) participated in the study,

divided equally into experimental and control groups

through purposive sampling based on age-appropriate

cognitive-linguistic development, limited prior

exposure to digital media, and parental consent

(BERA, 2018). Over a four-week intervention period,

the experimental group engaged with twelve teacher-

created e-storybooks incorporating Mayer's (2020)

multimedia principles, including limited animations,

bilingual narration, and interactive questions during

three weekly 20-minute sessions, while the control

group received conventional instruction using printed

storybooks. Data were collected using a validated

ICECE 2025 - The International Conference on Early Childhood Education

observational rubric (α=.87) adapted from the

Narrative Assessment Protocol (Justice et al., 2010),

assessing eight storytelling competency aspects: story

structure, event sequencing, character/setting

recognition, descriptive vocabulary, narrative

coherence, emotional expression, verbal intonation,

and participation levels.

The quantitative data analysis utilized SPSS 28

with a three-tiered approach: (1) descriptive statistics

to map participants' baseline abilities, (2) paired

sample t-tests to measure within-group

improvements, and (3) independent sample t-tests to

compare outcomes between groups, supplemented by

effect size calculations (Cohen's d) to assess

intervention magnitude (Shadish et al., 2020).

Statistical assumptions were verified through

Shapiro-Wilk (normality) and Levene's

(homogeneity) tests, while instrument reliability was

ensured through inter-rater agreement (92%, κ=.89)

and internal consistency (α=.85-.91). The research

adhered to BERA (2018) ethical guidelines,

implementing parental consent protocols, child-

friendly procedures, and data anonymization. The

mixed-methods approach combining quantitative

statistical analysis with qualitative teacher interviews

enabled comprehensive evaluation of both learning

outcomes and classroom implementation practices,

providing a holistic understanding of teacher-

designed e-storybooks' effectiveness in authentic

early childhood education contexts.

3 RESULTS

This study aimed to examine the effectiveness of

teacher-designed e-storybooks in enhancing early

childhood storytelling skills, building upon recent

research demonstrating the pedagogical benefits of

digital storytelling in early literacy development

(Kucirkova, 2019; Bus et al., 2020). Two groups of

15 children from Pembina Kindergarten, Talawi,

Sawahlunto City, West Sumatera, Indonesia were

involved in a four-week intervention: an experimental

group that engaged with carefully designed e-

storybooks created by their classroom teacher

following Mayer's (2020) multimedia learning

principles, and a control group that received

instruction through conventional read-aloud methods

using printed storybooks. The teacher-created e-

storybooks incorporated developmentally appropriate

features including limited animations to minimize

cognitive load, interactive questions to promote

engagement, and culturally relevant visuals to

enhance comprehension (Takacs & Bus, 2021).

Children's storytelling skills were measured using a

validated observational rubric adapted from the

Narrative Assessment Protocol (Justice et al., 2010)

that assessed eight critical narrative components:

story structure (beginning-middle-end), logical

sequencing of events, accurate character and setting

recognition, use of descriptive vocabulary, coherence

of ideas, appropriate emotional expression, verbal

expression and intonation, and active participation

during storytelling sessions.

The quantitative analysis revealed compelling

evidence supporting the effectiveness of teacher-

designed e-storybooks. Descriptive statistical

analysis of pre-test and post-test scores demonstrated

a substantial improvement in the experimental

group's performance. The experimental group's mean

score increased significantly from 17.9 in the pre-test

to 31.4 in the post-test, resulting in a mean gain score

of 13.5 points (Cohen's d = 1.87, indicating a large

effect size). In contrast, the control group showed

only modest improvement, moving from a pre-test

mean of 18.1 to a post-test mean of 22.6, with a mean

gain of just 4.5 points (indicating a moderate effect).

These findings strongly suggest that children exposed

to teacher-designed e-storybooks experienced

improve children storytelling abilities compared to

their peers in the control group, supporting previous

research on the benefits of well-designed digital

narratives in early childhood education (Aladé et al.,

2020). The significant gains were particularly notable

in the areas of story structure, vocabulary use, and

narrative coherence, which align with key predictors

of later reading comprehension success (Griffin et al.,

2021). Furthermore, qualitative observations noted

that children in the experimental group demonstrated

greater enthusiasm and engagement during

storytelling activities, suggesting that the multimedia

elements in the teacher-created e-storybooks may

have enhanced both learning outcomes and

motivation (Parish-Morris et al., 2018).

Table 1: Descriptive Statistics.

Group

Mean

Pre-

Test

Mean

Post-

Test

Mean

Gain

Experimental 17.9 31.4 13.5 1.85 15

Control 18.1 22.6 4.5 1.55 15

To determine the significance of improvement

within each group, a paired samples t-test was

conducted. The results showed a highly significant

increase in the experimental group (p = 0.000), while

the control group also demonstrated a significant,

Enhancing Young Children’s Storytelling Skills Through Teacher-Designed E-Storybooks: Impact of Digital Media on Narrative

Competence

though smaller, improvement (p = 0.038). These

results suggest that although both groups made

progress, the teacher-designed e-storybook had a

more powerful impact.

Table 2: Paired T-Test (Pre-Test vs Post-Test).

Group

Mean

Pre-

Test

Mean

Post-

Test

Mean

Difference

Sig. (2-

tailed)

Experimental 17.9 31.4 13.5 0.000

Control 18.1 22.6 4.5 0.038

An independent samples t-test was used to examine

whether the gain scores between the two groups

differed significantly. The result yielded a t-value of

20.01 with a p-value of (p < 0.001), indicating a

statistically significant difference between the

experimental and control groups. This confirms that

the teacher-designed e-storybook was significantly

more effective in improving children’s storytelling

skills.

Table 3: Independent samples t-test.

Statistic Value

t (gain score)

20.01

Sig. (2-tailed)

< 0.001

The findings of this study resonate with

emerging evidence that emphasizes the unique value

of educator-developed digital tools in early childhood

settings. Recent studies demonstrate that when

teachers create their own digital learning materials,

they can incorporate culturally responsive elements

and localized narratives that commercial products

frequently overlook (Souto-Manning & Rabadi-Raol,

2022). This customization enables educators to

address specific learning gaps within their classrooms

while reflecting children's lived experiences through

story characters, settings, and problem scenarios that

mirror their daily realities. Such personalization has

been shown to increase both engagement and

knowledge retention among young learners.

A key strength of teacher-created digital media

lies in its adaptive scaffolding potential. Research by

Zhang et al. (2023) reveals that educator-designed e-

books can dynamically adjust complexity levels

based on individual learner responses, offering

tailored vocabulary support or simplified story

branches when needed. This responsive design

contrasts sharply with static commercial e-books that

follow a one-size-fits-all approach. The embedded

scaffolds in teacher-developed materials—such as

visual glossaries for difficult words or interactive

"think-aloud" prompts—actively model

metacognitive strategies that children can later apply

independently during storytelling activities.

Moreover, the collaborative design process itself

yields professional growth opportunities. As noted in

the International Literacy Association's (2022)

guidelines, when teachers engage in creating digital

resources, they develop deeper technological

pedagogical content knowledge (TPACK) that

enhances all aspects of their instruction. This dual

benefit—improved teaching materials coupled with

enhanced educator competencies—creates a virtuous

cycle where digital tool development simultaneously

strengthens classroom practice and child learning

outcomes. The present study's results suggest this

professional transformation may be as valuable as the

immediate gains in children's narrative skills..

The experimental group's superior performance in

this study confirms recent findings that dynamic

cognitive-emotional engagement serves as a critical

catalyst for children's narrative development.

Research demonstrates how measured multimedia

design - such as focused animations and emotive

audio narration - can strengthen children's

understanding of character motivations and cause-

effect relationships in stories (Bus et al., 2020). These

findings align with Mayer's (2020) cognitive-

affective engagement theory, which posits that

learning is most effective when digital media

stimulates both cognitive processing and emotional

resonance.

The identity-shaping aspects of narrative

construction were amplified through interactive

features in teacher-designed e-storybooks. Kucirkova

(2019) found that personalized digital content

enhances children's engagement and their ability to

connect stories with personal experiences. Features

like voice recording allowed children to develop

metacognitive awareness in storytelling (Aladé et al.,

2020). The control group's limitations reveal

traditional methods' shortcomings in narrative

scaffolding. Conventional approaches often fail to

deliver adaptive feedback or opportunities for

repeated exploration (Justice et al., 2010). Roskos et

al. (2021) note that traditional methods' lack of

multimodal input restricts children's ability to build

rich mental representations. These findings

underscore the need to integrate universal design

principles in early childhood materials. A hybrid

approach combining digital and traditional elements

could maximize both mediums' advantages

(Guernsey & Levine, 2022). Teacher training remains

ICECE 2025 - The International Conference on Early Childhood Education

essential to ensure technology serves pedagogical

purposes (Lisenbee & Ford, 2020).

Bus et al. (2020) caution that many commercial e-

storybooks distract rather than educate due to overuse

of animations and games. The e-storybooks designed

in this study avoided these pitfalls by prioritizing

narrative integrity and developmental

appropriateness. This approach is consistent with

recommendations from the National Association for

the Education of Young Children (NAEYC, 2020),

which advocate for developmentally appropriate

practices that balance child interest, engagement, and

learning goals.

The strength of the teacher-designed e-storybooks

also lies in their contextual relevance. As Kucirkova

(2019) notes, personalization and familiarity within

digital narratives can significantly enhance learning

outcomes. Teachers in this study tailored story

content to local themes and classroom experiences,

making the stories more relatable and meaningful.

This is in contrast to commercial materials that often

present generic content with limited cultural or

contextual relevance.

Finally, the present study supports the framework

proposed by Guernsey and Levine (2022), which calls

for integrating digital literacy with pedagogical

expertise. Teachers must not only be consumers of

digital tools but also creators of learning experiences

that resonate with young learners. The evidence here

demonstrates that when teachers take on the role of

media designers, they can elevate the learning impact

of digital storytelling beyond what traditional

methods or generic e-books can offer.

4 CONCLUSIONS

The results of this study demonstrate that teacher-

designed e-storybooks significantly improve the

storytelling abilities of early childhood learners.

Children in the experimental group experienced a

much greater increase in their post-test scores

compared to those in the control group, with

statistically significant gain scores. This suggests that

when educators themselves design digital learning

media, they can more effectively meet children’s

developmental needs by embedding intentional

narrative scaffolds, structured story progression, and

contextually relevant content.

Unlike commercially available e-books, which

often emphasize entertainment over pedagogy,

teacher-created digital storybooks offer a more

targeted and developmentally appropriate learning

experience. These storybooks are tailored to

children’s linguistic, cognitive, and emotional

growth, allowing them to better understand story

elements, articulate ideas, use rich vocabulary, and

express emotions through narrative. The

improvements observed across multiple storytelling

dimensions—including structure, sequence, and

expressiveness—highlight the value of empowering

teachers to become active content creators.

In conclusion, the integration of pedagogically

informed digital media—especially e-storybooks

developed by teachers—holds significant promise for

enhancing early literacy and communication skills.

The findings emphasize the importance of equipping

early childhood educators with digital design skills to

create meaningful, engaging, and personalized

storytelling tools. Supporting teachers in this role not

only elevates the quality of instruction but also

redefines the teacher’s role as an innovator in child-

centered digital education.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We extend our heartfelt appreciation to all who

contributed to this study. First and foremost, we thank

our wonderful participants, especially the young

storytellers whose voices and creativity inspired this

work. To our dedicated co-authors, thank you for

your invaluable expertise and collaborative spirit—

this manuscript truly reflects our shared effort. We’re

also deeply grateful to the teachers and school

administrators who welcomed us into their

classrooms and facilitated this research with warmth

and professionalism. Padang State University

provided essential support and resources, for which

we’re sincerely thankful. Finally, to our colleagues,

friends, and family: your encouragement during late-

night writing sessions and thoughtful feedback kept

us motivated. This work was made possible through

[mention funding if applicable], and any views

expressed here remain our own.

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