Complex Mechanisms in Climate Refugee Management: A

Case Study from Bangladesh

Yuan Fang

and Junfu Lu

School of Foreign Languages, Yunnan University, Kunming, Yunnan, 650500, China

School of Humanities and Social Sciences, Xi’an Jiaotong-Liverpool University, Suzhou, Jiangsu, 215000, China

Keywords: Mechanism Complexity Theory, Bangladesh, Resource Allocation, International Cooperation.

Abstract: Global climate change has intensified extreme weather and resource shortages, making climate refugees a

growing concern, particularly in Bangladesh's Khulna region. This study uses mechanism complex theory and

case analysis to explore how Bangladesh addresses climate refugee challenges through international, human

rights, and environmental laws. Khulna faces issues like resettlement difficulties, food insecurity, education

and healthcare shortages, unclear legal status, and limited interstate cooperation. While efforts exist, problems

like poor resource allocation and implementation persist. The study highlights the need for better interdepart-

mental coordination, international cooperation, local capacity building, and increased global support to man-

age climate refugees effectively.

1 INTRODUCTION

The growing global climate crisis, characterized by

extreme weather phenomena and resource shortages,

is increasingly forcing large populations to lose their

homes to environmental changes, leading to the

emergence of climate refugees. The traditional

definition of refugees and its position in international

law as represented by the 1951 Refugee Convention

do not mention the phenomenon of climate refugees,

which calls for increased focus on such a

phenomenon from the international community.

Climate refugees manifest differently across the

world, as, for example, populations in certain

countries migrate from drought-affected areas to

better water availability areas. Or as in the case of

Bangladesh, rising sea levels and floods make the

coastal populations migrate inland. Bangladesh,

being a low-lying and densely populated country, is

highly susceptible, with the Khulna region being an

illustrative example of rising sea levels, floods, and

soil salinity. These tensions generated by climate

change force residents to change their livelihoods and

migrate east. In turn, population migration puts

pressure not only on the social composition of the

area of origin but provides an ongoing burden on the

resources, infrastructure, and public belongings of

areas of destination. For those who remain, living

conditions deteriorate, along with exposure to poverty

and vulnerability. Consequently, the climate refugee

issue in Bangladesh represents not only an

environmental challenge but also a complex socio-

economic problem, urgently requiring concerted

efforts both domestically and internationally.

At the level of international relations,

Bangladesh’s challenge in coping with climate

refugees is not only related to its domestic policy but

also its position in the world political economy. As a

developing country, Bangladesh finds it hard to gain

support from the international community. However,

by participating in international climate change

dialogue and negotiation, Bangladesh can strengthen

its voice in global climate governance and urge the

international community to pay more attention to the

climate refugee issue while getting technical,

financial, and knowledge-based support. Therefore,

Bangladesh’s synchronization between domestic

policy and international cooperation, as well as

effective mechanism integration and conflict

resolution in managing climate refugees, will be a

case for global climate governance.

This study aims to present the theory of

mechanism complexity. A case study will be

conducted to illustrate how Bangladesh deals with

coordinating multiple mechanisms such as

international law, human rights law and

environmental law to establish a sound climate

refugee management system. The theory is

mechanism complexity, which allows for the

564

Fang, Y. and Lu, J.

Complex Mechanisms in Climate Refugee Management: A Case Study from Bangladesh.

DOI: 10.5220/0014003400004912

Paper published under CC license (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0)

In Proceedings of the 1st International Conference on Innovative Education and Social Development (IESD 2025), pages 564-570

ISBN: 978-989-758-779-5

integration of multiple mechanisms as it focuses on

the coordination and cooperation among multiple

mechanisms, meaning that multiple fields can be

integrated. This research not only focuses on how

Bangladesh can leverage international cooperation,

non-governmental organizations, and other forces to

enhance the international protection and management

of climate refugees, but also examines how to strike a

balance between domestic policies and international

mechanisms, offering practical improvement

proposals. The aim is to provide new insights and

references for climate refugee management.

2 THE KHULNA ISSUE

2.1 Introduction

Khulna is an important city located in the

southwestern part of Bangladesh, at the confluence of

the Padma River (lower section of the Ganges) and

the Rupsha River, near the Indian border. As the

capital of the Khulna Division, the city serves not

only as the administrative center of the region but also

plays a significant role in industry and commerce,

particularly in sectors such as paper production, wood

processing, and sugar manufacturing. Additionally,

Khulna is one of the main gateways to the Sundarbans

National Park. The Sundarbans is renowned for its

vast mangrove forests and rich biodiversity, and it is

one of the largest mangrove ecosystems in the world.

2.2 The Problem of Climate Refugee

2.2.1 Climate Refugee Resettlement

Natural disasters have led to large numbers of people

being forced to move to the Khulna region. For

example, in early 2011, approximately 60,000 people

were displaced in remote areas of southwestern

Khulna District due to permanent coastal flooding

caused by rising sea levels (Displacement Solutions,

2012). This is an organization where many residents

are forced to live on embankments, surrounded by

uncontrolled waters or large areas of abandoned land.

It is worth noting that 90% of the displaced people

have no fixed source of livelihood and can only rely

on humanitarian assistance to survive.

Migration has fundamentally changed because

two countries, Bangladesh and India are affected by

climate change. There is a lot of migration in Khulna

due to rising sea levels and increased flooding (Adger

et al., 2018). Many residents in the low-lying areas

have been affected by climate change. All of these

migrants fleeing will create pressure on the receiving

side. The impact on the areas where migrants are

fleeing will not only be physical but also affect the

structure of the human economy and society.

2.2.2 Food Security

Since the relocation of displaced persons to

temporary settlements by the government and

humanitarian agencies alleviated the issue of

displacement, food security proved to be the most

pressing challenge for the Khulna region. Salinization

and floods have destroyed a large amount of

agricultural land, directly impacting local crop

production. Underpinning the Khulna region

economy, agriculture has plummeted dramatically,

which resulted in crop shortages and loss of income.

Other than being deprived of the traditional

agricultural source of income, the majority of the

households cannot make a living without food self-

sufficiency, adding to the overall level of poverty.

Moreover, the overall situation has worsened due to

climate change-caused unstable climate conditions

and the frequency of extreme climate incidents.

Agricultural production and food security have been

subjected to an increased level of uncertainty

(Chowdhury and Hasan, 2022). In this context, food

security in the Khulna region is not only affected by

natural environmental factors, but also by changes in

socio-economic structures. Long-term solutions are

urgently needed to address this problem.

2.2.3 The Shortage of Education and

Healthcare Resources

With the influx of climate refugees, the host

communities in the Khulna region are facing

tremendous pressure in terms of education and health

services. Due to the population surge, the resources

of schools and hospitals are insufficient to effectively

cope with the sudden increase in demand, resulting in

a significant decline in the quality of education and

health services. In terms of education, the capacity of

schools has quickly reached its limit, the number of

students has increased significantly, classrooms are

crowded, and teacher resources are tight, which has

affected the quality of teaching, especially for

children from poor families, and the dropout rate has

increased, further exacerbating social inequality

(McAdam and Saul, 2010). In the medical field,

hospitals and health service systems are also unable

to meet the sharply increasing demand. With the

increase in health problems among vulnerable groups

such as pregnant women and the elderly, the

allocation of medical resources has become more

Complex Mechanisms in Climate Refugee Management: A Case Study from Bangladesh

565

difficult, and the timeliness and quality of treatment

services have been threatened. The migration of

refugees in Bangladesh has been a huge strain on its

public service system, and also brought new

challenges to the host communities in the process of

social inclusion. In Khulna, due to refugee migration,

schools and hospitals are especially under stress and

effective ways to resolve this increasingly serious

situation are urgently needed (Ahmed and Ahmad,

2013).

2.2.4 Legal Status and Social Integration

Many climate refugees may be faced with an

uncertain legal identity after immigrants settle in the

receiving areas, such as Khulna (Dewan, 2023). The

immigrants can neither fully enjoy the social rights of

the place they come from nor adapt themselves to the

social system of the place they immigrate to. The

ambiguity of their identity leads to their unfavorable

situation of employment, education, and medical

treatment and, in any case, they cannot get equal

resources and opportunities as local residents.

Furthermore, cultural differences and social

exclusion also worsen their marginalization and

become an obstacle to their social integration. Under

the situation of lack of legal protection and social

support, climate refugees face greater survival

challenges and psychological pressure. The problem

of identity and rights of climate refugees in the

Khulna area still lacks effective solutions. It is urgent

for the government and all sectors of society to take

measures to protect this vulnerable group’s interest

(Kraemer, 2017).

There’s still no legally binding agreement on

climate change migrants, and current international

law doesn’t provide sufficient rights for climate

refugees (McAdam, 2012). It shows again, that there

is a need to enhance international cooperation and

construct a better legal infrastructure. Moreover,

climate change not only threatens human security, but

it can also cause or aggravate violent conflicts, which

creates future hardships on climate refugees’ social

integration (Barnett and Adger, 2007).

3 SOLUTIONS

3.1 Refugee Settlements

These assistances also provided loans and technical

assistance in the development and implementation of

the National Adaptation Programme of Action

(NAPA) of Bangladesh while also investing in basing

infrastructures like flood embankments and

improving drainage systems of the Khulna region.

The World Bank and other existing partners of this

organization did not just provide finances but also

offered their technical assistance to assist the country

in dealing with the challenges associated with climate

change. It was through such projects that these

infrastructures within the Khulna region were

improved and consequently, the capacity for floods

and management of water resources in this region

were improved and therefore the resilience and

adaption of communities were improved (Ahmed and

Ahmad, 2013).

3.2 Food security

The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO)

developed salt-tolerant varieties of agricultural crops

and agricultural technologies to enable farmers to

continue to run farming operations in areas of severe

salinity and increase food production. Thus, in

Khulna, salt-tolerant rice varieties have been

promoted locally by Faon (Ahmed and Ahmad,

2013). At the same time, the Fund for Agricultural

Development (IFAD) Micro-Credit Project provides

assistance to affected families to obtain funds for

buying seeds, fertilizers, and other materials to restore

agricultural productivity (Chowdhury and Hasan,

2022).

Thus, farmers of Khulna district were provided

with much-needed support with funds through this

project.

3.3 Insufficient Education and Medical

Resources

Pantries need to be improved Schooling needs to be

improved Mobile classrooms and distance education

programs made by United Nation’s Fund for Children

(UNICEF) have been employed to carry on the

educating of climate refugee children. Training and

support of teachers have been also provided for

coping with learning market niches. The schools of

Khulna improvements have been made by the

mentioned initiatives and projects. Pantries need the

following: emergency medicine Affected sanitation

needs to be improved Pantries have emergency

medicine delivered by the World Health Organization

(WHO). Medical stations and emergency clinics have

been established by the affected place for emergency

immigration services to climate refugees. Pantries

have medical stores for Khulna upgrades (Ahmed and

Ahmad, 2013).

IESD 2025 - International Conference on Innovative Education and Social Development

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3.4 Legal Status and Social Integration

International organizations and non-governmental

organizations (NGOs) have introduced multiple

social integration projects to promote harmonious

coexistence between climate refugees and host

communities. Organizations such as the Red Cross

and Save the Children provide vocational training and

mental health intervention to assist climate refugees

from the Khulna region in smoothly progressing to

the local human community (Ahmed and Ahmad,

2013).

Changes in refugee labels are new challenges to

the identification of refugees under globalization

(Zetter, 2007). To protect the rights of climate

refugees, refugee definitions and policies should be

reviewed and revised.

3.5 Cross-Border Cooperation and

Information Sharing

Countries, governments and international

organizations should work together to establish a

transnational cooperation mechanism to share

information and exchange experiences on climate

refugee. So we can predict and control the trend of

climate refugee flows, and we can implement

measures in advance to avoid emergencies. For

example, the G20 group can be the focus of global

governance and can promote the establishment of an

effective climate refugee protection mechanism

(Kraemer, 2017). The case of the Khulna region has

also been included in this international discussion.

4 EVALUATING INTERNA-

TIONAL MECHANISMS

4.1 Interaction Among Multilateral

Mechanisms

4.1.1 Resource Allocation and Coordination

The World Bank and other multilateral development

banks are providing loans and technical assistance,

but in some cases, this is not very effective. For

instance, while building flood control dams and

improving the drainage in Khulna, resources are

wasted due to overlapping implementation and

unreasonable project planning.

Limited cooperation across various international

organizations, particularly within a region such as

Khulna, creates uneven distribution. For example, the

lack of an effective connection between FAO projects

to promote salt-tolerant rice varieties and the financial

support of microcredit projects has prevented some

farmers from making full use of these resources.

4.1.2 Policy Implementation and Local

Adaptation

Although many policy frameworks have been

developed by institutions such as the actions Human

Rights Council (UNHRC), and the International

Organization for Migration (IOM), there are gaps in

their actual implementation in the Khulna region. For

example, the human rights protection policies

advocated by the UNHRC may not be fully

implemented at the local level, resulting in the legal

rights and interests of climate refugees not being

effectively protected.

Many aid projects tend to focus on short-term

results and ignore long-term sustainable

development. For example, although FAO’s technical

support has increased food production in the short

term, the lack of attention to long-term soil health and

water resource management may lead to new

environmental problems in the future.

4.2 Bilateral and Regional Cooperation

4.2.1 Bangladesh-India Cooperation

The two countries have strengthened cooperation in

border management, but in the Khulna region, due to

its special geographical location, there is still a

problem of illegal immigration (Ahmed and Ahmad,

2013). This not only increases the difficulty of

management, but also brings security risks to local

communities.

Although Bangladesh and India jointly manage

cross-border rivers, in the Khulna region, water

resource allocation in downstream areas still faces

challenges due to the impact of upstream water

conservancy facilities (Chowdhury and Hasan, 2022).

This unbalanced water resource allocation

exacerbates local drought and flood risks.

4.2.2 Regional Cooperation and SAARC

The South Asian Association for Regional

Cooperation (SAARC) promotes cooperation among

member countries, but in the Khulna region, resource

allocation remains uneven. For example, some

infrastructure projects may be concentrated in more

developed regions, while remote areas such as

Khulna receive relatively less support (Ahmed and

Ahmad, 2013). Despite the promise of technical

Complex Mechanisms in Climate Refugee Management: A Case Study from Bangladesh

567

assistance, the actual effect of technology transfer in

the Khulna region is limited.

4.3 The Role of non-Governmental

Organizations

4.3.1 Coordination and Supplementation of

Official Mechanisms

While Greenpeace has promoted global climate

action through advocacy and lobbying, its impact in

Khulna is limited. Local environmental awareness

and policy promotion require more localized work.

The Rural Labour Market Monitoring and

Research Center (RMMLRUR) works for research

and policy recommendations. However, the coverage

of the vocational training centers needs to be

improved in Khulna. Still, many climate refugees do

not have skills and employment (Ahmed and Ahmad,

2013).

4.3.2 Community Support and Service

Provision

Though non-government organizations provide direct

aid like food, medicine, and education, coverage and

continuity of their aid are lacking within the Khulna

region.

Efforts to raise public awareness of climate

refugee issues and mobilize social participation are

not deep enough in the Khulna region. Social

opposition and exclusion still exist, affecting the

social integration of climate refugees (Ahmed and

Ahmad, 2013).

5 SUGGESTION

5.1 Establishing a Cross-Departmental

Coordination Mechanism

The Bangladeshi government should set up an

interdepartmental committee to clarify the division of

responsibilities of various departments in climate

refugee management and strengthen the connection

with international mechanisms. The mechanism

complex theory emphasizes that coordination

between various departments within the country and

external international mechanisms is crucial. The

government can establish a unified policy framework

through an interdepartmental committee to

coordinate cooperation between departments such as

diplomacy, interior affairs and social welfare and

international organizations such as the UNFCCC and

the International Organization for Migration (IOM).

For example, the diplomatic department maintains

communication with international organizations to

strive for climate change funds; the social welfare

department is responsible for coordinating the actual

implementation of local refugee resettlement.

At the same time, the mechanism complex theory

also proposes that the flow of information between

different mechanisms is the key to achieving efficient

cooperation. It is recommended that the government

establish an information-sharing platform to update

and share information such as resources, funds, and

technology of various departments and relevant

international organizations in real time, thereby

reducing information islands and avoiding duplicate

investment and waste of resources. This can promote

effective coordination between the Bangladeshi

government and multilateral mechanisms and non-

governmental organizations (NGOs).

5.2 Strengthening Capacity Building

According to the mechanism complex theory, the

interaction and coordination of multiple international

mechanisms in dealing with climate refugees requires

local governments and communities to have

sufficient response capabilities. Therefore, it is

recommended to provide professional training on

climate change, disaster management, refugee

resettlement, etc. for local governments and

community organizations. These trainings can be

conducted through UN agencies or international

NGOs to enhance the understanding of local

governments and communities on the requirements of

international mechanisms and enhance their initiative

and response capabilities in climate refugee

management.

It is recommended to set up a special fund to

support local governments and community

organizations in improving their capabilities in

facility construction, vocational training, etc. in the

process of climate refugee resettlement. The

mechanism complex theory emphasizes that the

distribution of resources is often unbalanced on a

global scale. By establishing a special fund, the

funding gap at the multilateral mechanism or national

level can be made up, ensuring that vulnerable areas

such as Khulna can receive sufficient support and

reducing the uneven distribution of resources.

5.3 Promoting Multi-Party Cooperation

The mechanism complex theory emphasizes that

Bangladesh should mobilize more international

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568

resources and technical support through bilateral and

multilateral cooperation mechanisms. For example,

Bangladesh can sign a cooperation agreement on

climate refugee management with developed

countries to ensure that these countries’ commitments

in funds, technology and materials can be

implemented promptly. At the same time, it can strive

for more climate financing support through

international platforms such as the UNFCCC to

enhance the overall disaster resilience of climate

refugee resettlement.

The mechanism complex theory also emphasizes

the role of regional mechanisms. Under the

framework of the South Asian Association for

Regional Cooperation (SAARC), Bangladesh can

promote regional countries to strengthen cooperation

in climate refugee management, especially in cross-

border resource management and disaster response,

and coordinate the allocation and sharing of

resources. Bangladesh can work with neighboring

countries such as India and Myanmar to study climate

refugee management models to ensure that resource

sharing in the region is not restricted by national

borders and reduce conflicts and unfair resource

allocation.

5.4 Leverage the Power of

non-Governmental Organizations

The mechanism complex theory emphasizes that the

role of NGOs in climate refugee management cannot

be ignored, especially in grassroots services and

social mobilization. The government should establish

a cooperation framework with NGOs, and use the

flexibility and rapid response capabilities of NGOs in

climate refugee management to make up for the

shortcomings of government mechanisms. For

example, Greenpeace can promote local society’s

awareness of climate change and increase public

attention to climate refugee issues; while RMMRU

can help provide specific vocational training,

employment support, etc. to reduce the social

exclusion of climate refugees.

In order to ensure that the projects in which NGOs

participate can meet the climate refugee management

needs of Bangladesh, the government needs to

establish a more stringent supervision mechanism and

conduct regular project evaluations. The mechanism

complex theory emphasizes that reasonable

supervision and coordination can reduce friction and

conflict between different mechanisms, ensure the

effective use of resources, and avoid duplication of

investment or ineffective intervention.

5.5 Promoting Social Integration and

Psychological Support

The mechanism complex theory states that the long-

term resettlement of climate refugees relies heavily

on social and cultural integration. It is suggested that

the government should work with international

institutions and NGOs to carry out cultural exchanges

in the refugee resettlement area so that refugees can

understand local culture, and local residents can also

recognize and accept the cultural background of

refugees. Forms such as community activities and

cultural festivals can reduce social conflicts caused by

cultural differences and promote social integration

between the two sides.

The psychological issues of climate refuge should

be taken seriously. It is suggested that the government

and NGOs work together to establish a psychological

counseling service system to provide psychological

support for climate refugees to recover from post-

disaster post-traumatic stress disorder and the stress

of adapting to new life. According to the mechanism

complex theory, mental health support can not only

alleviate social conflicts, but also enhance refugees’

self-development ability and help them to better

integrate into the community.

5.6 Education and Skills Training

According to the mechanism complex theory,

education and skills training are important means to

enhance the self-adaptation ability of climate

refugees. It is recommended to set up vocational

training centers in refugee settlements to provide

skills training courses suitable for the local market,

such as agricultural technology and handicraft

production. Through cooperation with international

educational institutions and enterprises, educational

resources and employment opportunities can be

provided to refugees to achieve a virtuous cycle of

education, skills training and employment.

From the perspective of the mechanism complex

theory, Bangladesh can unite international

organizations, NGOs and private enterprises,

integrate global resources, provide support including

teaching materials, teacher training, internship

opportunities, etc., and improve the quality and

coverage of education and skills training. Through

such transnational cooperation, Bangladesh can more

effectively solve the employment problems of climate

refugees and promote their social integration.

Complex Mechanisms in Climate Refugee Management: A Case Study from Bangladesh

569

5.7 Sustainable Development Planning

From the mechanism complex theory, the

construction of climate refugee settlement areas

requires The sustainable development of the

resettlement area should pay attention to

environmental protection and rational use of

resources, try to use environmental-friendly materials

and energy-saving technology, such as solar energy,

rainwater recycling, etc. At the same time, it is also

necessary to develop green agricultural projects, so

that refugees can have self-supporting production and

living resources, which can not only alleviate

environmental pressure, but also create long-term

jobs for climate refugees.

In order to reduce the reliance of refugees on

foreign resources and help them become more self-

reliant, it is necessary to develop ecological

agricultural projects using the mechanism complex

theory to solve the problem, so as to provide refugees

with job opportunities and at the same time, improve

refugees’ self-sufficiency in food and the sustainable

development capacity of the settlement sites.

6 CONCLUSION

As a kind of environmental refugee, the climate

refugee problem in Bangladesh is a multi-level and

multi-dimensional problem not only caused by

environmental problems such as climate change, but

also by the superposition and interaction of many

economies, law, culture, politics, and other aspects.

And through the mechanism complex theory, this

paper analyzes not only how Bangladesh coordinates

international mechanisms with domestic policies and

observations to facilitate the settlement and migration

of climate refugees, and so on: the case of Khulna

shows the influence of climate change on the

livelihoods, food security, social infrastructure, and

the public services to local people, so it is necessary

to enhance the transnational space and international

organizations to enhance the cooperation, and realize

the joint solution.

However, the latter is still facing issues, such as

resource allocation, policy implementation, and

social integration, despite efforts from both

international and local communities. Bangladesh

should strengthen cross-sectoral synergy in climate

refugee management, promote interaction and

cooperation among different international

mechanisms, and enhance the response capability of

local governments and communities. The

international community, especially developed

countries and multilateral agencies, should further

strengthen their support for climate refugees,

especially in funding, technology, and knowledge

transfer. Through cooperation and coordination, not

only can Bangladesh cope with the current

challenges, but also provide valuable experience and

solutions for the global management of climate

refugees.

AUTHORS CONTRIBUTION

All the authors contributed equally and their names

were listed in alphabetical order.

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