Research on Interventions for Foreign Language Anxiety: A

Review and Outlook

Xiao Ning

Foreign Languages College, Nanchang HangKong University, Nanchang, 330063, China

Keywords: Foreign Language Anxiety, Intervention, Intervention Methods, Intervention Effects.

Abstract: Foreign language anxiety (FLA) is a kind of nervousness and fear arising in a specific situation, which affects

learners' performance and confidence in foreign language learning, and then negatively affects their

motivation and achievement. This paper analyzes empirical literature on FLA interventions from the past

decade, reviews progress, summarizes methods and effects, explores shortcomings, and suggests future

directions. It is found that there are 14 effective anxiety intervention methods, which mainly intervene in

teaching mode, interactive sessions, and psychological level. Almost all of the literature shows that FLA is

alleviated after the implementation of the interventions. This paper offers suggestions to address existing

research shortcomings. It aims to help people with FLA reduce their stress and discomfort during the learning

process, and to provide effective support for learners.

1 INTRODUCTION

FLA is a specific type of situational anxiety that

manifests palpable feelings of tension, apprehension,

and fear in foreign language learning contexts. It is a

unique emotion associated with foreign language

learning. This anxiety is usually associated with the

uncertainties in communication, evaluation, and

linguistic competence encountered in foreign

language learning environments. FLA can

significantly influence students' motivation,

classroom performance, and test scores, while also

having negatively affecting on their long-term

language learning attitudes and confidence.

Therefore, how to effectively reduce or intervene in

FLA and help learners learn the language in a more

relaxed and confident environment has become an

important issue to be solved in the field of language

education research. In recent years, scholars have

made some progress in the empirical research on FLA

intervention, but there is less relevant review

literature. In light of this, this paper reviews the

research progress in the field of FLA intervention,

sorts out the intervention methods, summarizes the

effects of intervention, explores the limitations of the

current research, and then looks forward to the

possible direction of development in the future. The

aim of this paper is to help individuals with FLA

reduce their anxiety during foreign language learning

and to provide support for language learners.

2 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

2.1 State and Trait Anxiety

Spielberger proposed the dichotomy of State Anxiety,

and Trait Anxiety in 1966. This theory provides a

clear categorization framework for anxiety research

and helps scholars better understand the different

manifestations of anxiety and its effects on individual

behavior. State anxiety refers to a transient emotional

response triggered by a specific situation. Trait

anxiety is a long-term, stable personality trait that

refers to an individual's tendency to experience

anxiety more readily in a variety of situations.

Spielberger's theory provides the basis for subsequent

research on situation-specific anxiety. FLA, as a form

of situation-specific anxiety, was developed based on

this theoretical framework.

2.2 Situation-Specific Approaches

Times Anxiety

The Situation-Specific Approaches to Anxiety was

developed by Barlow in the 1980s and further

systematized in his 1988 book Anxiety and Its

Disorders: The Nature and Treatment of Anxiety and

Panic. The core idea of this theory is that anxiety is

not a universal emotional response but rather takes on

different forms and intensities depending on the

500

Ning, X.

Research on Interventions for Foreign Language Anxiety: A Review and Outlook.

DOI: 10.5220/0014001200004912

Paper published under CC license (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0)

In Proceedings of the 1st International Conference on Innovative Education and Social Development (IESD 2025), pages 500-505

ISBN: 978-989-758-779-5

specific situation or situational characteristics.

Anxiety is a context-specific emotional response,

meaning that the production and expression of

anxiety are dependent on a specific situation, or

stimulus, rather than a universal emotional state. This

theory provides theoretical support for the study of

situation-specific anxiety such as FLA. FLA, as a

type of context-specific anxiety, has been analyzed in

depth based on this framework.

2.3 Language Anxiety Theory

Horwitz, Horwitz and Cope (1986) first

systematically explored the connotation of language

anxiety and its mechanism of action in The Modern

Language Journal, which considered language

anxiety as “a complex phenomenon peculiar to

second or foreign language learning” and classified it

into three categories: communicative anxiety, test

anxiety, and fear of negative evaluation. Horwitz and

his colleagues compiled the Foreign Language

Classroom Anxiety Scale (FLCAS) and verified its

reliability, validity and internal consistency in several

studies. With the further deepening of the research,

more and more researchers were not satisfied with the

overall study of foreign language learning anxiety,

they began to pay attention to the anxiety produced

by the learners in the process of listening, speaking,

reading and writing in foreign languages, and the

corresponding assessment tools had also been

gradually developed.

3 LITERATURE REVIEW OF

EMPIRICAL RESEARCH

3.1 Research Review

To find research related to Foreign Language Anxiety

Reduction (FLAR), this paper reviews empirical

literature on anxiety interventions published in the

past decade. The study utilized two online databases:

China National Knowledge Infrastructure and Google

Scholar, searching with the keywords "FLA" along

with "reduce," "lower," "alleviate," and

"intervention." Duplicate articles, those unrelated to

the topic, non-empirical studies, and documents that

could not be downloaded from the platforms were

excluded. In total, 20 articles suitable for analysis

were collected, detailed as follows.

Literature was released from: 2011-2023, and

almost every year there was an empirical literature

release, indicating that empirical research has been

continuing. Chinese journals accounted for 40% of

the studies, while international journals represented

60%. College students accounted for the highest

proportion of research subjects, 70%, which may be

related to the fact that college students are under

higher pressure than primary and secondary school

students. The current level of research is among

students, with fewer studies among the rest of society.

The types of anxiety studied are mainly classroom

anxiety, writing anxiety (WA), speaking anxiety, with

limited research on other related forms of anxiety.

The number of participants in the experiments

showed little regional variation: 40% of the

experiments involved more than 100 participants,

35% involved fewer than 50 participants, and 25%

involved between 50 and 100 participants. Basically,

all the experiments are a combination of quantitative

and qualitative, there are control groups, and

Researchers often rely on instruments such as the

FLCAS, Foreign Language Writing Anxiety Scale

(FLWAS), and Foreign Language Speaking Anxiety

Scale to measure anxiety in language learning

context. However, data collection primarily relied on

questionnaires, with limited use of other methods.

3.2 Intervention Methods

FLA generally has a negative impact on individuals,

affecting both the process and outcomes of foreign

language learning. Research on FLA intervention is

very necessary. This paper reviews the literature from

the past decade and summarized 14 intervention

methods, primarily focusing on teaching mode,

interactive sessions, and psychological level.

The main intervention methods related to teaching

modes include the Authentic Writing Task-

Motivated, Application-Oriented, Writing Skill-

Targeted, and Project-Checked (AAWP) model;

Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL);

the Continuation Task; Comparative Continuation

Writing; and Cooperative Learning. AAWP model is

an English writing teaching model constructed by

Shixiang Guo (Guo, 2011). Guo (2016) conducted an

empirical study to examine the impact of the AAWP

on English majors' WA. CLIL is an approach to

content and language instruction in a second or

foreign language. It advocates a “dual focus” on

language and content, shifting the focus of learning

from the language itself to the acquisition of language

skills through the learning of content, and expanding

the opportunities for students to use the language.

Zhong and Fan (2018) study attempted to conduct a

CLIL teaching experiment, using quantitative

tracking to examine the effect of the CLIL model on

Research on Interventions for Foreign Language Anxiety: A Review and Outlook

501

Chinese English majors' WA. The continuation task

model is a method of foreign language teaching and

learning proposed by Chuming Wang based on the

theory of alignment, an integrated reading and writing

teaching activity. Its core feature is that students are

required to complete the writing task by continuing

the unfinished part of the text on the basis of reading

and understanding the content of the text. Zhang and

Qin (2020) , and Zhang (2016) studied the effect of

the continuation task on English majors' WA. The

comparative continuation task is a text-specific

writing task that requires students to create a

continuation of a text based on what they have learned

after reading the whole text and to compare and

analyze the plot development, language style, or

mode of thinking of the original text in the

continuation process. Zhan, Jiang, and Huang (2022)

investigated students' anxiety in second language

writing through a comparative continuation writing

approach. Cooperative learning is a teaching theory

and strategy system that emerged in the United States

in the early 1970s. The Johnson brothers of the

Cooperative Learning Center of the University of

Minnesota believe that cooperative learning is a way

for students to work together to achieve common

goals and maximize their own and each other's

learning (Johnson & Johnson, 1989). Researchers

have pointed out that cooperative learning has a

strong positive impact on almost all factors closely

related to language acquisition and is effective in

reducing language learning anxiety in the classroom

(Oxford, 1990).

The main intervention methods related to

interactive sessions include peer feedback, dual-

center teaching, formative assessment, and drama

learning. Peer feedback refers to the task of peers

reading and making (“useful”) comments on each

other's drafts of writing and is not limited to explicit

“corrective” feedback but also includes feedback that

addresses social and emotional aspects, and

recommends metacognitive and memory learning

strategies. Hansen and Liu (2002) study is an early

example of research involving peer feedback. Chen

(2005) proposed the characteristics of “teacher-

centered”, “student-centered” and “teacher-student

dual-centered” teaching models. Based on this theory,

Zhang (2013) found that compared with the single-

centered teaching model of“student” or “teacher”,

the “dual-centered” teaching model, which takes into

account both “student” and “teacher”, was the most

conducive to the reduction of learners' anxiety in

foreign language learning. Under the “dual-center”

teaching model, teachers increase students' initiative

and participation through interactive forms, and

enhance students' motivation and interest. Formative

Assessment is an important educational concept

developed by Michael Scriven, an American

philosopher and educational assessment expert.

Formative assessment aims to support and promote

student learning through ongoing feedback and

assessment, rather than simply assessing learning

outcomes. Formative assessment is characterized by

the interaction of students, peers, and teachers, and

emphasizes immediate and effective feedback to

learners. If students receive continuous positive

feedback, this can help build confidence and reduce

anxiety about learning a foreign language. Tang

(2016) showed that implementing formative

assessment in English speaking classrooms was

effective in alleviating students' speaking anxiety.

Drama learning is a teaching method based on role-

playing, improvisation, and situational simulation. It

relaxes the classroom atmosphere, encourages

students to express themselves in more varied forms,

and creates authentic and low-pressure environments

for language use (Galante, 2018). Kwiecie´n-

Niedziela, Polok, and Mala (2020) found that FLA

could be effectively reduced by teaching through

drama.

The main psychological intervention methods

include the positive psychology approach,

mindfulness training, meditation exercises, affective

strategies, and cognitive behavioral therapy.

Psychological interventions are those that focus on

the cognitive and affective aspects of the learner and

aim to reduce FLA by adjusting the student's way of

thinking and emotional responses. Positive

psychology focuses on how to enhance human well-

being, satisfaction, and mental toughness, as well as

exploring the positive qualities and potential of

individuals, organizations, and societies. MacIntyre

and Gregersen (2012), and Lake (2013) introduced

positive psychology into the field of second language

acquisition. Zhang and Chen (2023) explored an

intervention study on college students' foreign

language learning anxiety based on Seligman's theory

of well-being. Mindfulness training is a state of mind

that is completely focused on the experience of the

present moment, emphasizing nonjudgmental,

nonreactive observation and acceptance of current

feelings, thoughts, and the external environment. Gao

(2024) found that students' mindfulness and FLA

were at an intermediate level, and that higher levels

of mindfulness resulted in higher levels of ability to

perceive a foreign language, and lower levels of

anxiety and burnout. Meditation is a very widespread

spiritual practice aimed at controlling thoughts,

relaxing the mind, and promoting inner peace and

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tranquility. Research has found mindfulness and

meditation to be helpful for stress reduction and stress

relief (Bamber & Schneider, 2016). Affective

strategies refer to the adjustment of learners'

motivation, emotions and, attitudes. By using

affective strategies, language learners can reduce

anxiety by implementing a number of psychological

techniques and solve problems through teacher-

student or peer interactions (O'Malley & Chamot,

1990). Chou (2004) argued that affective strategies

could help learners both manage their feelings and

attitudes toward learning and interact with others.

Cognitive-behavioral therapy relies heavily on

teaching individuals how they largely prioritize their

belief systems and how they feel about and react to

events in their lives and surroundings (Bachman &

Palmer, 1996). Wang (2011) suggested that cognitive

restructuring could be used to help middle school

students manage FLA.

3.3 Effects of Interventions

Almost all the literature confirms that FLA is

alleviated to some extent following the

implementation of interventions. Ku and Chen (2015)

found that FLA could be reduced through cooperative

learning. Liu and Xu (2018) confirmed that students

who studied cooperatively outperformed those who

worked alone in terms of knowledge tests,

independent learning scores, foreign language

classroom anxiety, and emotional state. Wu and Gu

(2011) found that general WA, somatic anxiety, and

evaluation anxiety could be reduced through

cooperative learning. Mostafavi and Vahdany (2016)

showed that teaching affective strategies had a

positive effect on Iranian English learners' oral

proficiency improvement and anxiety reduction. Jin,

Dewaele, and MacIntyre (2021) used positive

psychology intervention and found that oral anxiety

was significantly reduced. Scida and Jones(2017)

Utilized meditation intervention to reduce FLA.

Abood and Abu-Melhim (2015), Meng and Chen

(2014) used cognitive-behavioral therapy

intervention and the study confirmed that FLA was

significantly reduced. Bailey and Cassidy (2019)

intervened in FLA through peer feedback, Tang

(2016), Zarrinabadi and zazadeh (2023) through

formative assessment, and Zhang (2013) through

dual-center instruction, and the study showed that

WA and speaking anxiety were reduced. Guo (2016)

intervened in WA through the AAWP model, Zhong

and Fan (2018) through the CLIL model, Zhan, Jiang,

and Huang (2022) through comparative continuation

writing, and Zhang (2016) through the continuation

task, and the study found that WA was alleviated in

all of them.

However, some interventions were not effective

in reducing FLA. Morgan and Katz (2021) studied the

effect of mindfulness meditation on alleviating

foreign language classroom anxiety .The experiment

did not explicitly show that mindfulness meditation

could alleviate foreign language classroom anxiety

(FLCA), but it proved that mindfulness meditation

could change the way learners understand FLCA, and

the majority of the participants recognized that

mindfulness meditation was beneficial to mental

health benefits.

It was found that although the types of anxiety

were the same, the intervention effects were not

exactly the same. Wu and Gu (2011) studied

cooperative learning to reduce non-English major

college students' English WA, using four factors of

“somatic anxiety”, “self-confidence anxiety”,

“avoidance behavior” and “evaluation anxiety” for

analysis. The study found that cooperative learning

could effectively reduce non-English major college

students' general anxiety, evaluation anxiety and

somatic anxiety in English writing, but had no

significant effect on avoidance behavior and self-

confidence anxiety. Guo (2016) used the same factors

of WA for empirical evidence and found that there

was a significant reduction in general WA, somatic

anxiety, self-confidence anxiety, and evaluative

anxiety, but there was no significant change in the

aspect of avoidance behavior. Zhong and Fan (2018)

analyzed the FLWAS by dividing it into four factors:

classroom teaching anxiety, conceptualization

anxiety, avoidance behavior, and self-confidence

anxiety, and the study found that classroom teaching

anxiety and conceptualization anxiety were most

significantly reduced, followed by avoidance anxiety,

and self-confidence anxiety failed to alleviate

significantly. Zhan, Jiang, and Huang (2022) used the

same anxiety factors as those of Zhong and Fan

(2018) to analyze, and the study found that the

experimental group's level of conceptualization

anxiety was significantly lower than that of the

control group, but there was no significant difference

in classroom teaching anxiety, avoidance behavior,

and self-confidence apprehension.

3.4 Impact of Intervention on Other

Dimensions

It was found that the implementation of FLA

intervention had an impact on students' performance.

Zhang and Qin (2020) showed that after the

implementation of the continuation task intervention,

Research on Interventions for Foreign Language Anxiety: A Review and Outlook

503

the test scores of the two classes showed a significant

difference, and the scores of the experimental class

were higher than the scores of the control class. In

addition, Jin, Dewaele, and MacIntyre (2021) found

that the realization of a positive psychology

intervention resulted in the improvement of learners'

non-verbal skills, such as intercultural knowledge and

testing ability.

3.5 Reflection

The empirical research on FLA intervention has

gained some results, but there are still issues to reflect

on. In this paper, the author believes that the

experiment has areas that need to be improved,

increase the number of empirical experiments, and

expand the research object to various fields, not only

limited to students. The sample size of the study

should be increased, expanding the types of anxiety

interventions, the research tools should be rich, and

can be added in addition to the Anxiety Scale.

Interview design form is more targeted,

diversification of analysis methods, can be carried out

with the help of computer, software analysis platform.

This paper argues that intervention for FLA is

necessary, but it is not a generalization. Albert and

Haber (1960) argue that moderate anxiety is

facilitative to learners, stimulating learners' intention

to learn and promoting their motivation to learn, and

this type of anxiety is called facilitative anxiety.

Research suggests that an optimal level of anxiety

may serve as a motivational factor, thereby

facilitating learners' linguistic competence

development in second language acquisition contexts,

and there is no need to intervene for moderate

anxiety.

4 CONCLUSION

This paper combed the empirical literature of FLA

intervention research in the past decade, reviewed the

research development stage, summarized the

intervention methods, and analyzed the effect of

intervention methods in the intervention process, as

well as illustrated the shortcomings in the existing

research process. FLA is an objective phenomenon

that cannot disappear, and future research should

innovate intervention methods, make full use of

virtual reality, AI and other technological means to

enhance the effect of intervention, and pay attention

to the long-term effect of intervention and the

mechanism of dynamic change. Through these

improvements, FLA intervention research will

provide more comprehensive support for learners and

play a greater practical value in the context of

globalized education.

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