Guanyin Worship and Female Subjectivity: From Gendered Practices

to Spiritual Empowerment

Yutong Deng

Communication Design-Illustration, Pratt Institute, New York, U.S.A.

Keywords: Buddhism, Asian Culture, Gender Study.

Abstract: This essay explores the transformation of Avalokiteshvara into Guanyin, examining its implications for

gender and spirituality within Chinese society. Drawing on Buddhist art, feminist theory, and material culture

studies, it analyzes how Guanyin’s feminization integrated Confucian ideals of caregiving and maternal

compassion, providing women with both spiritual empowerment and constrained roles. The study utilizes

historical and visual analysis of key artifacts, such as the Water-Moon Guanyin and devotional practices like

hair embroidery. The findings reveal a duality: while Guanyin worship enabled women to assert spiritual

agency, it also reinforced societal expectations tied to Confucian gender norms. This research concludes that

Guanyin’s evolution exemplifies religion's ability to adapt to cultural values while shaping individual and

collective identities, underscoring the interplay between liberation and limitation.

1 INTRODUCTION

In the intricate tapestry of Chinese religious and

cultural history, few figures resonate as profoundly as

Guanyin, the bodhisattva of compassion. Originally

depicted as a masculine deity, Guanyin underwent a

significant transformation during China’s imperial

era, emerging as a feminine figure closely aligned

with ideals of motherhood, gentleness, and care. This

evolution exemplifies Buddhism’s adaptability to

Confucian social structures, providing women with a

spiritual role model and a source of solace amidst

restrictive gender norms.

While Guanyin’s feminization opened avenues

for personal expression and spiritual empowerment,

it also reinforced societal expectations that tethered

women to caregiving and domestic roles. This

paradox is vividly expressed in gendered practices

such as hair embroidery, idol-making, and the

crafting of religious jewelry. Beyond their ritualistic

dimensions, these practices served as potent tools for

women to navigate the confines of Confucian society.

Through embedding devotion into artistic creations

and symbols of faith, women found a medium to

articulate their spirituality, emotions, and

individuality. Yet, these same practices often

perpetuated traditional gender roles, emphasizing

maternal virtues and domesticity. This duality invites

critical questions: How do these gendered practices

enable women to achieve spiritual empowerment and

assert their subjectivity? Do they simultaneously

perpetuate restrictive stereotypes, thereby generating

a complex tension between liberation and limitation?

The exploration of these questions is essential for

understanding the dual role of religion as both a

refuge and a reinforcer of societal norms. Drawing on

feminist theory, sociology of religion, and material

culture studies, this paper examines how Guanyin

worship offers women a spiritual framework that both

challenges and aligns with Confucian ideals.

This study not only examines historical practices

but also seeks to contribute to broader discussions

about gender and religion. The feminization of

Guanyin and its associated rituals offer a compelling

case study for how religious traditions adapt to

cultural values while shaping individual and

collective identities. In combining insights from

historical analysis, theoretical perspectives, and

material culture studies, this paper aims to deepen

understanding of the nuanced role religion plays in

women’s lives. Guanyin worship, with its blend of

spiritual empowerment and cultural constraint, serves

as a mirror reflecting the complexities of female

subjectivity within the broader context of Chinese

society. This duality not only underscores the

transformative potential of religion but also its

intricate ties to the fabric of tradition, power, and

identity.

Deng, Y.

Guanyin Worship and Female Subjectivity: from Gendered Practices to Spiritual Empowerment.

DOI: 10.5220/0013998600004912

Paper published under CC license (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0)

In Proceedings of the 1st International Conference on Innovative Education and Social Development (IESD 2025), pages 419-424

ISBN: 978-989-758-779-5

419

2 THE CULTURAL AND SOCIAL

SIGNIFICANCE OF

GUANYIN’S FEMINIZATION

2.1 The Process of Feminization

The feminization of Avalokitesvara into Kuan-yin

represents a uniquely Chinese transformation,

wherein the Buddhist bodhisattva of compassion

evolved from a masculine figure into a feminine one.

Initially perceived as male in Indian and early

Chinese representations, Avalokitesvara gradually

became Kuan-yin, the female "Goddess of Mercy,"

during the Tang Dynasty, with her feminine identity

fully realized by the Ming and Qing periods. This

transformation reflects not only Buddhism’s

adaptability but also its deep integration into Chinese

cultural and social frameworks. The feminized Kuan-

yin offered a spiritual figure that resonated with the

Confucian ideals of familial devotion and maternal

compassion, bridging Buddhist teachings with

societal expectations. Her role as a maternal and

compassionate deity, accessible to women, made her

a pivotal figure in both religious and cultural life (Yü,

2001).

This evolution addressed a cultural need within

Confucian society for a savior who could embody

both spiritual guidance and practical aid in daily life.

Prior to the introduction of Buddhism, China lacked

a universal savior figure capable of offering salvation

across spiritual and worldly realms. As Chun-fang Yü

explains, Kuan-yin filled this void by blending

Buddhist compassion with Chinese ideals of

responsiveness and moral virtue, making her a figure

uniquely suited to meet the spiritual needs of Chinese

devotees (Yü, 200). Her feminization aligned her with

virtues traditionally associated with women, such as

caregiving and empathy, which were highly esteemed

in Confucian values.

This transformation was further reinforced by

visual and narrative depictions of Kuan-yin that

emphasized her accessibility and nurturing qualities.

Artistic portrayals, including the White-Robed Kuan-

yin and the Thousand-Armed Kuan-yin, highlighted

her role as a maternal protector, which appealed

especially to female practitioners. These artistic

innovations not only reflected but also shaped the

ways in which Kuan-yin was worshiped, presenting

her as a compassionate figure deeply attuned to the

struggles of her followers. As Yü notes, the

introduction of these visual forms helped to solidify

Kuan-yin’s identity as a symbol of maternal care and

moral virtue in the popular imagination (Yü, 2001).

Similarly, narrative adaptations, such as the story of

Princess Miao-shan, rooted her feminized identity in

Chinese cultural norms. The story portrays Miao-shan

as a paragon of filial piety and self-sacrifice, further

connecting Kuan-yin to Confucian values while

making her relatable to women as a figure who

exemplified both spiritual and familial devotion (Yü,

2001). In this legend, Miao-shan’s ultimate act of

compassion and self-sacrifice leads to her ascension

as Guanyin, symbolizing the spiritual transformation

from human virtue to divine compassion and

reinforcing the bodhisattva’s role as an accessible and

empathetic deity.

2.2 Water Imagery and Feminine Traits

This transformation not only reshaped Guanyin’s

identity but also redefined her symbolic attributes.

Her transformation into a maternal and

compassionate figure also provided a relatable

spiritual role model for women, extending beyond

human-like qualities to natural imagery that

emphasized femininity and nurturing. This shift,

however, was not confined to her human-like

qualities—it extended to natural imagery that further

emphasized her connection to femininity and

nurturing. As a crucial role in the representation of

Guanyin, Water imagery particularly in her "Water-

Moon" form, embodies nurturing, gentleness, and

adaptability. Edward H. Schafer notes that in Chinese

literature and culture, water has long been associated

with feminine and cosmic principles such as yin—

moisture, receptivity, and fertility. This association is

not limited to physical characteristics but extends to

deeper symbolic representations of femininity in

nature and spirituality (Schafer, 1973). By linking

Guanyin to water, her image becomes one of softness

and strength, embodying qualities that resonate with

women and underscore her role as a spiritual nurturer.

Chinese water deities, including nymphs and river

goddesses, often represented the cyclical nature of

water in their mythological and literary portrayals.

These figures were seen as embodiments of the

cosmic cycle of rain, rivers, and the nurturing soil,

harmonizing with the seasonal renewal of life

(Schafer, 1973). Similarly, Guanyin’s "Water-Moon"

imagery connects her to these natural cycles,

highlighting her as a provider of spiritual and material

sustenance. Schafer's analysis underscores the idea

that this association was intentional, as it rooted

Guanyin in existing cultural understandings of

femininity and water’s life-giving properties.

The "Water-Moon" Guanyin, depicted seated

amidst reflections of the moon on rippling water,

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symbolizes not only purity and compassion but also

the transient and mutable nature of existence. Schafer

emphasizes that this fluidity in Guanyin’s form aligns

with Buddhist teachings on impermanence and the

adaptability required for spiritual enlightenment

(Schafer, 1973). The water imagery thus becomes a

metaphor for Guanyin’s ability to take on many forms

to respond to the cries of sentient beings, a key aspect

of her salvific role.

By drawing on water’s nurturing and

transformative characteristics, Guanyin’s

representation in her "Water-Moon" form becomes

deeply resonant with women’s lived experiences. As

Schafer notes, such imagery enhances her cultural

appeal, particularly in societies where women’s roles

were closely tied to caregiving and the maintenance

of life cycles (Schafer, 1973). At the same time, it

reinforces traditional feminine traits, creating a

complex interplay between empowerment and the

reinforcement of gendered expectations. Through the

symbolic use of water, Guanyin emerges as both a

compassionate savior and a figure deeply rooted in

the cultural ethos of feminine spirituality.

The feminization of Guanyin, deeply rooted in

Chinese religious and cultural contexts, exemplifies

both empowerment and constraint for women. Chün-

fang Yü underscores how Guanyin's transformation

into a maternal figure was not merely a passive

adaptation but a deliberate construction shaped by

Confucian ideals. As Yü argues, "Guanyin’s

feminization was not merely a reflection of religious

adaptation but a deliberate construction influenced by

the societal needs of a Confucian patriarchy" (Yü,

2001). This feminization provided women with a

relatable spiritual figure and legitimized their roles

within the religious sphere. However, it

simultaneously confined their identities to caregiving

and compassion, aligning with the broader societal

expectation of women as nurturers and caregivers.

The iconography of the White-robed Guanyin

vividly illustrates this duality. Depicted as gentle and

protective, this representation emphasizes maternal

care, purity, and selflessness. While these qualities

resonate with Confucian values and elevate women’s

spiritual roles, they also obscure other dimensions of

autonomy, power, and individuality. Unlike other

deities who embody strength or transcendence,

Guanyin’s image reinforces a singular, idealized view

of femininity that prioritizes service to others over

self-determination. This construction, while

spiritually empowering, risks reducing women to

archetypes of compassion and caregiving, leaving

little room for alternative expressions of identity.

Yü’s analysis of the Princess Miao-shan narrative

further reveals how Guanyin’s feminization

perpetuates the ideal of self-sacrifice as a cornerstone

of virtuous femininity. The story of Miao-shan, who

endures suffering and sacrifices herself to fulfill her

filial duties, mirrors the Confucian emphasis on

familial obligation and subservience. While her

transformation into Guanyin exemplifies spiritual

transcendence, it also reinforces the expectation that

women achieve empowerment through acts of

submission and altruism. This narrative constructs a

model of female virtue that intertwines spiritual

authority with the societal ideal of selfless devotion.

These representations and narratives suggest that

the feminization of Guanyin both responded to and

reinforced cultural values of the time. On the one

hand, Guanyin provided spiritual comfort and a

model of moral behavior for women. On the other

hand, her domestication as a mother figure limited her

ability to challenge patriarchal structures. The

selective emphasis on nurturing and care in Guanyin

images and narratives reflects the social framework

of Confucian gender roles, in which women are

praised for their contributions to family and

patriarchy but marginalized in terms of autonomy and

power.

3 FEMALE SUBJECTIVITY IN

GENDERED PRACTICES

Material practices such as hair embroidery, idol-

making, and religious jewelry were deeply embedded

in the devotional lives of women, serving as tangible

manifestations of faith. These acts, though rooted in

domestic labor, transcended their functional origins,

becoming profound expressions of spirituality that

intertwined personal devotion with communal

participation.

3.1 Hair Embroidery and Spiritual

Empowerment

The use of one’s own hair in embroidery represented

an unparalleled act of personal sacrifice, where

physical labor became a direct offering of devotion

(Li, 2012). Yuhang Li describes this practice as

“efficacious pain,” highlighting how the

incorporation of one’s own body into the act of

creating Guanyin’s image symbolized an intimate

connection to the divine (Li, 2024). By turning the

labor-intensive act of embroidery into sacred art,

women repurposed domestic tasks into a means of

Guanyin Worship and Female Subjectivity: from Gendered Practices to Spiritual Empowerment

421

asserting spiritual agency (Irwin, 1990). This practice

simultaneously reinforced and elevated their roles

within the Confucian ideal of feminine virtue,

transforming the personal into the sacred.

3.2 Idol-Making and Identity

Awakening

Idol-making further expanded the ways women could

express their devotion and creativity (Murphy, 2013).

Women actively shaped Guanyin’s image to reflect

their life realities and cultural values, emphasizing

her feminine and maternal qualities (Li, 2012). Li

Yuhang points out that women's contributions to

Guanyin's images emphasize her feminine and

maternal qualities, transforming her image into a

figure that female believers can understand (Li,

2024). This creative agency enables women to

participate directly in religious narratives, making

Guanyin more acceptable through localized gender

interpretations and taking back a certain discourse

power from patriarchy.

3.3 Religious Jewelry and Social

Identity

Religious jewelry provided another dimension of

spiritual expression, integrating faith into women’s

daily lives in portable and public ways. Unlike the

fixed nature of embroidered images or idols, jewelry

allowed women to carry their spirituality with them,

making their religious identities visible in a social

context.

Arjun Appadurai’s theory of the “social life of

objects” provides a lens for understanding the

meaning of these objects. As Appadurai explains,

objects acquire value through circulation and use,

becoming vehicles of social and cultural exchange

(Appadurai, 1986). Often exchanged as gifts or

inherited within families, religious jewelry became a

marker of both personal piety and collective identity.

For example, a Guanyin hairpin given during a

pilgrimage symbolized not only the giver’s faith but

also their participation in collective worship. By

wearing such objects, women made their religious

beliefs public, asserting their spiritual identities while

deftly crossing the boundaries of Confucian gender

norms.

Together, these material practices illustrate the

profound ways in which women redefined domestic

labor as a medium for spiritual expression. Hair

embroidery emphasized the personal and specific

nature of piety, icon-making allowed for the creative

shaping of divinity, and religious jewelry provided a

portable, public expression of faith. While these

practices often reinforced traditional ideals of

femininity, they also opened pathways for individual

and communal empowerment, enabling women to

navigate the constraints of their roles in Confucian

society while asserting their spiritual and social

identities. This interplay between domestic and

spiritual life highlights the resilience and creativity of

women’s devotional practices in late imperial China.

While material practices like hair embroidery and

religious jewelry gave women tangible outlets for

devotion, devotional songs offered a lyrical medium

to articulate their inner emotions and spiritual

struggles. Similar to embroidered images, crafted

idols, and jewelry articulated women’s spiritual

identities in visible and portable forms, songs allowed

them to externalize their inner emotions and spiritual

struggles.

4 DISCUSSION

The devotional songs of Chinese women pilgrims, as

documented in Appendix B of Kuan-yin: The Chinese

Transformation of Avalokitesvara, provide

invaluable insight into their faith's emotional and

subjective dimensions. These songs, composed and

sung by women, not only glorified Guanyin but also

articulated their personal spiritual experiences,

illustrating how women used poetic expression to

navigate and assert their identities within Confucian

gender norms (Bokenkamp, 2011). The lyrical

content of these songs reveals a deeply personal

connection to Guanyin, emphasizing her maternal

compassion and divine protection. For instance, one

song describes her as “a merciful savior who hears the

cries of the suffering and rescues the lost” (Yü, 2001).

Such verses highlight the profound emotional bond

between female devotees and Guanyin, portraying her

as a source of solace and strength in times of hardship.

Furthermore, these songs also played a critical

role in fostering a sense of collective identity among

women. Sung during pilgrimages, rituals, and

community gatherings, they created shared

experiences that reinforced bonds within the religious

community. Émile Durkheim’s theory of collective

symbolism explains how such shared expressions

strengthen communal ties and moral unity. He

emphasizes that rituals and shared practices create a

sense of belonging by uniting individuals under a

common moral framework (Durkheim, 1912).

In the case of Guanyin worship, these songs

became a participatory act that transcended individual

piety, enabling women to affirm their roles within the

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religious community. By singing together during

pilgrimages and rituals, women not only expressed

their devotion but also contributed to a collective

spiritual energy, reaffirming their shared values and

connection to Guanyin. This communal participation

transformed the act of singing into a powerful social

ritual, embedding women within the larger

framework of Guanyin worship while strengthening

the moral and spiritual fabric of their Together, these

lyrical compositions complemented material

expressions of devotion by giving voice to women’s

inner lives, creating an auditory legacy of spirituality.

This interplay between tangible and lyrical devotion

highlights the depth of women’s engagement with

Guanyin worship in late imperial China.

Judith Butler’s theory of gender performativity

provides a critical lens for understanding how

material practices and devotional songs in Guanyin

worship function as reiterative acts that sustain and

reproduce cultural norms of femininity. Butler argues

that gender is not a fixed or innate identity but rather

a series of performative acts shaped by societal

expectations and cultural scripts (Butler, 1990). In the

context of Guanyin worship, women’s engagement in

practices such as hair embroidery, idol-making, and

singing devotional songs exemplifies these

performative acts, aligning women’s roles with

Confucian ideals of caregiving, compassion, and self-

sacrifice.

Material practices like hair embroidery and

devotional songs illustrate Butler’s concept of

performativity, where repeated acts sustain cultural

norms and construct the illusion of a core identity

(Butler, 1990). By embroidering devotional images

with their hair, women enacted virtues of sacrifice

and caregiving, aligning their spiritual expression

with societal expectations of feminine piety.

Similarly, devotional songs, sung during pilgrimages

and community rituals, celebrated Guanyin’s

maternal compassion and relational virtues,

embedding these ideals into communal narratives.

Both practices reinforced cultural norms of

caregiving and selflessness while allowing women to

assert agency within the boundaries of Confucian

ideals.

At the same time, Butler’s theory also highlights

the potential for resistance within performative acts.

While shaped by cultural expectations, material

practices, and songs allowed women to assert agency

by influencing how Guanyin’s image and narrative

were expressed. Through crafting idols or composing

songs, women infused their lived experiences into

religious practices, emphasizing maternal qualities

that were both relatable and empowering. These acts

subtly redefined gender norms, providing a space for

self-expression within the constraints of Confucian

society.

The interplay between empowerment and

constraint in these practices underscores the dual

nature of gender performativity in Guanyin worship.

While material practices and songs provided women

with avenues for spiritual expression and communal

participation, they also functioned as scripts that

reinforced societal expectations of femininity. By

examining these acts through Butler’s lens, it

becomes clear that Guanyin worship served as both a

space for spiritual agency and a mechanism for

sustaining Confucian ideals of gender.

5 CONCLUSION

This study concludes that the transformation of

Avalokiteshvara into Guanyin demonstrates

Buddhism’s adaptability to cultural values while

shaping and reflecting gender roles in Chinese

society. The research reveals that Guanyin’s

feminization provided women with spiritual

empowerment through devotional practices like hair

embroidery and religious jewelry, while

simultaneously reinforcing Confucian ideals of

caregiving and sacrifice. Thus, the study highlights

the dual role of Guanyin worship as both a space for

agency and a mechanism for sustaining patriarchal

norms.

The findings of this research contribute valuable

insights into the intersection of religion, gender, and

material culture, offering a nuanced understanding of

how spiritual practices influence societal identities.

This study’s focus on Guanyin worship provides a

framework for analyzing similar transformations in

other religious contexts and their effects on gendered

identities.

Future research should delve deeper into cross-

cultural comparisons of feminine spiritual figures and

their socio-political impacts, as well as explore

modern reinterpretations of Guanyin’s androgyny in

contemporary art and feminist theology. This could

provide further insights into how religious symbols

evolve and resonate in response to shifting cultural

paradigms.

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