Critical Review on Zhuangzi's Xu-Shi as an Epistemology and

Its Intercultural Encounter

Ziyue Sun

Faculty of Educational Sciences, University of Helsinki, Helsinki 00100, Finland

Keywords: Zhuangzi, Xu, Shi, Epistemology, Intercultural Philosophy.

Abstract: This paper reviews recent studies on Zhuangzi’s “xu-shi”(虚实) as an epistemology and emphasize the

linguistic gap when these terms encounter interculturality. The paper distinguishes connotative meanings

behind the selected translations in English and Chinese. It explains how the “xu-shi” as an epistemology in

Zhuangzi’s work could be understood. Then, it critically reviews the generation and the application of the

language xu (虚) and shi (实) in different research respectively, accompanying with their ideas. Later, the

paper highlights that a continuing completing Zhuangzi’s xu-shi as en epistemology would offer reflective

insights into current analytical frameworks for the studies of multiple discipline, inter-disciplines, and

sustainable humanities. It suggests the potential for establishing a research framework based on Zhuangzi’s

intellect relate to xu-shi. Keywords: Zhuangzi, Xu, Shi, Epistemology, Intercultural Philosophy

1 INTRODUCTION

In Zhuangzi, the concepts of "xu" (虚) and "shi" (实)

are seen as a form of epistemology and a dynamic

relationship of the nature of beings (Chen, 2023;

Chen, 2014; Hou, 2008; Hu, 2020; Hu, 2023; Li, 2016;

Liu&Yi, 2024; Zhang, 2019). Zhuangzi points out

that the spiritual world represents "shi" because it is

independent of the changing and uncertain nature of

the external world, holding a deeper sense of truth

(Hu, 2020). In contrast, the external world is

described as "xu", not because it lacks substance but

because it is fluid and unpredictable (Chen, 1985;

Chen, 2023; Chen, 2024; Hansen, 2024). However,

Zhuangzi does not treat "xu" and "shi" as simple

opposites. Instead, it focuses on the process of

seeking "xu" within the inner "shi" to achieve

transcendence (Chen, 1985; Chen, 2023; Chen, 2024;

Chen, 2023; Chen, 2014; Dai, 2024; Hansen, 2024;

Hou, 2008; Hu, 2020; Hu, 2023; Kim, 2011; Lai,

2024; Li, 2016; Liu&Yi, 2024; Wang; 2009; Wang,

2023; Zhang, 2019; Ziproryn, 2020). The details of

how could xu-shi be understood would be explained

later.

Within the recent five years, studies on Zhuangzi's

philosophy, as indexed in databases such as CNKI

and Google Scholar, have explored a variety of

themes. These include the challenges of translating

Zhuangzi’s texts across cultures, ontological

analyses, in-depth interpretations of specific

concepts, modern adaptations, and the practical

applications of Zhuangzi’s ideas in contemporary

contexts (Jiang, 2024; Yu, 2023). While the notions

of "xu" and "shi" frequently appear in these studies,

they are merely addressed as secondary or supporting

elements for the topics (Chen, 2024; Chen, 2023;

Chen, 2014; Dai, 2024; Hansen, 2024; Hou, 2008; Hu,

2023; Kim, 2011; Lai, 2024; Li, 2016; Liang, 2018;

Liu&Yi, 2024; Lu& Wang, 2024; Wang, 2023;

Zhang, 2019; ). To date, no comprehensive study has

specifically analyzed "xu" and "shi” in neither

constructive nor criticize way.

This article covers the gap by reviewing how "xu"

and "shi" are understood by contemporary Chinese

and international scholars critically. Specifically,

how these concepts are applied in existing research

and what interpretative processes they have

undergone are reviewed. By addressing what has

already been achieved and identifying gaps in the

understanding of "xu" and "shi," this study aims to

highlight the epistemological significance of them.

The significance of this study lies in its potential

to establish “xu” (emptiness) and “shi” (substance) as

an analytical framework rooted in Chinese

philosophy. Once systematically formed, this

framework could become a methodological tool

applicable to many areas of research. It could be used

to address unresolved historical issues, disciplinary

Sun, Z.

Critical Review On Zhuangzi’s Xu-Shi as an Epistemology and Its Intercultural Encounter.

DOI: 10.5220/0013982000004912

Paper published under CC license (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0)

In Proceedings of the 1st International Conference on Innovative Education and Social Development (IESD 2025), pages 245-253

ISBN: 978-989-758-779-5

245

gaps, and contemporary challenges. The details could

be seen within the process of reviewing.

At the same time, the refocusing on the concept of

"xu" is particularly meaningful in the digital age. It

provides a way to reconsider the "virtual" aspects of

reality from a deeper perspective. Human’s capability

of understanding “xu” is tied to language. To explain,

while "shi" is often understood through tangible

experiences, "xu" lacks clear experiential grounding.

It leads the discussions about "xu" are often vague or

misinterpreted, appropriating or being appropriated.

In a world where the line between the virtual and the

real is increasingly important, developing language to

describe "xu" more precisely becomes crucial. This

linguistic development could help people better

identify and respond to experiences in virtual

environments. By improving understanding of "xu,"

this study opens possibilities for clearer thinking

about the virtual world in contemporary life.

This article does not treat Zhuangzi's encounter in

intercultural philosophy as a separate research

question. Instead, it incorporates the factors

considered by intercultural philosophy into the

understanding of Zhuangzi's xu-shi as an

epistemology. The author believes that cultural

boundaries are an essential part of understanding

philosophy. However, culture boundaries happens

not only when transport to another land, but

happening constantly among individuals. In other

words, when someone tries to understand another

person’s view of the world, intercultural exchange is

already involved, as people carry diverse and mixing

social and cultural backgrounds.

In this case, in reviewing Zhuangzi's xu-shi as an

epistemology, this article looks at how scholars from

different times and countries have focused on this

topic. The review includes issues like translation, the

different connotations of one word, and reflections

from cross-cultural perspectives. Therefore, besides

the summary relate to the history of translation in the

beginning of Chapter 3, the other parts of the paper

frequently emphasizes the role of intercultural, inter-

era, and inter-linguistics factors in understanding,

researching, and spreading ideas.

Yet, since the author does not have the necessary

proficiency in languages other than Chinese and

English, the review does not include studies on

Zhuangzi in the other languages around the world. It

become a gap for future research.

The main body of the article is divided into four

sections. Chapter 2 explains what xu-shi as an

epistemology is. Chapter 3 focuses on xu-shi as an

epistemology has been translated and understood in

an intercultural way. The discussion is divided into

three stages: cultural reductionism, context-based

detailed analysis, and applying dialogue as a method

in researching intercultural philosophy. In chapter 4

and 5, the author critically examines how "xu" and

"shi" are understood and applied in the existing

literature, distinguish the existed connotative

meanings. The paper points out how researchers use

“xu-shi” in an advantageous way, as well the

problems that have arisen. Finally, the conclusion will

give a respond to the questions raised in the

introduction and outline potential directions for future

studies.

2 HOW COULD ZHUANGZI'S

XU-SHI AS AN EPISTEMOLOGY

BE UNDERSTOOD?

In Zhuangzi, "xu-shi" ( 虚实) serves as a unique

epistemological framework that transcends binary

thinking and provides a method for understanding the

world through a dynamic interplay of opposites (Liu

& Yi, 2024). Rather than viewing xu (虚) and shi (实

) as isolated concepts, spatial adjectives or

descriptions of abstraction and concretion, Zhuangzi

integrates them into a dialectical approach (Liu & Yi,

2024). This interconnectedness reflects the way

reality is experienced—not as fixed categories, but as

fluid processes (Liu & Yi, 2024). The xu-shi

framework challenges conventional notions of truth

and objectivity, emphasizing that knowledge and

existence are relational, contingent, and constantly

evolving.

There are several suggestions for comprehending

xushi. Firstly, xu and shi coexist within the same

being (Hansen, 2024; Liu & Yi, 2024). This means

that both aspects are present simultaneously in any

given entity. Secondly, shi and xu are always in a state

of mutual pursuit (Liu & Yi, 2024). For example,

when shi represent a spiritual realm, xu is again

sought within that spiritual world. Thirdly, xu and shi

can transform into one another at any time, allowing

for flexibility and adaptability in understanding (Liu

& Yi, 2024). Fourthly, individuals who utilize the xu-

shi epistemology can switch between xu and shi as

needed to comprehend different aspects of

phenomena (Liu & Yi, 2024). Finally, Zhuangzi

believes that all existing and non-existing entities are

complete wholes without parts (Hansen, 2024; Liu &

Yi, 2024). This means that every being or non-being

is whole and indivisible, reflecting a unified and

integrated view of existence. By presenting xushi as

an epistemological tool, Zhuangzi emphasizes the

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dynamic and interconnected nature of knowledge and

reality, moving beyond simple binary classifications

(Liu & Yi, 2024).

Through Xu (虚), we can perceive, experience,

and empathize with Shi (实). However, it is important

to note that Zhuangzi's view of Xushi is not about

simply blurring boundaries or eliminating

distinctions. Instead, it reveals the a fine relativity and

interdependence of xu and shi. Graham (2022) and

Hansen (2024) highlight that simplistic

epistemologies such as "either this or that", “this, not

that” or "both this and that are irrelevant" fail to

capture Zhuangzi's perspective. What Zhuangzi

emphasizes is how xu and shi define and generate

each other within specific contexts, rather than

reducing them to indistinct categories. Xu is not

merely emptiness; it is an openness imbued with

meaning depending on the situation. Similarly, Shi is

not a fixed, unchanging entity; it is a state that

emerges through its relationship with Xu. Thus, Xu

and Shi are dynamic correspondences that actively

shape and transform one another, rather than static

concepts that cancel each other out.

3 THEIR EXPERIENCES AND

THE TRANSLATIONS

When placing Zhuangzi's concepts of "xu" (虚) and

"shi" ( 实 ) into a intercultural context, the issue

becomes more intricate. Jiang (2024) points out that

translators and international sinologists, in

interpreting and translating Zhuangzi, often

reinterpret them based on their own cultural traditions

and philosophical frameworks. Different translation

strategies not only influence the reception of

Zhuangzi’s philosophy but also risk introducing

certain misinterpretations (Jiang, 2024; Zhu, 2019).

Therefore, the following section will examine

Zhuangzi's notions of "xu" and "shi" from the

perspective of western translation and the method for

interpreting. It aims to explore the process from

unfamiliarity toward openness in intercultural

exchange of one philosophical idea. Also, it recognize

the challenges when ideas interact with human brain,

that ideas are hard to preserve their original meaning.

The development of Zhuangzi’s translation and

intercultural studies could be divided into three major

stages (Jiang, 2024). Each stage reflects different

approaches to cultural understanding and translation

while highlighting the deep challenges of

intercultural dialogue. In the first stage, researchers

sought to reinterpret Zhuangzi’s core ideas based on

a framework they know. While this approach offered

certain interpretive conveniences, it inevitably fell

into the trap of "cultural reductionism" (Jiang, 2024).

Scholars such as David Loy, Paul Kiellberg, and Lee

Yearley exemplify this stage, using Western

philosophical concepts as tools to position Zhuangzi

as either a response to or a complement to Western

thought (Jiang, 2024; Zhu, 2019). However, this

approach was later criticized by translators for

neglecting the uniqueness of foreign philosophy. This

method, often characterized by its reliance on

theoretical presuppositions, has been summarized by

Chinese scholars in international sinology as a

perspective that views Chinese philosophy through

"colored lenses" (Jiang, 2024). It undermines the

contextual integrity of Zhuangzi.

In response to the shortcomings of the first stage,

sinologists and translators shifted toward methods of

close textual reading and cultural contextualization

(Jiang, 2024; Zhu, 2019). Prominent figures such as

Hans Peter Hoffmann, Chad Hansen, Norman Teng,

and Roger T. Ames sought to abandon western

philosophy-dominated interpretative frameworks and

instead approached Zhuangzi’s ideas through the

historical context of the original text (Jiang, 2024;

Zhu, 2019). This approach emphasized detailed

analyses of Zhuangzi’s language, culture, and

intellectual background, aiming to restore the

historical-philosophical context in which his thought

emerged (Jiang, 2024). This stage not only provided

a paradigm for comparative philosophy between East

and West but also initiated genuine intercultural

dialogue (Jiang, 2024; Zhu, 2019). At this juncture,

Zhuangzi was no longer simply regarded as a

reflection of western philosophy, nor was western

thought considered a mirror for Zhuangzi’s ideas.

Notably, “dialogue” emerged as an immediate

method of cultural study during this phase (Jiang,

2024). While identifying similarities and differences

through comparison remained important, scholars

recognized that context-based comparison alone was

insufficient (Jiang, 2024; Yu, 2023). It often

overlooked cultural realities and how it influence

ideologies, mindset and cognitive state especially in

comprehending and communicating philosophy. In

this case, a continuous interactive dialogue became a

critical method in intercultural philosophical

learning, enabling Chinese and western scholars to

discover their unique intellectual structures and

generate new understandings (Jiang, 2024; Rosker,

2022).

As dialogue developed as a research method,

scholars increasingly realized that close textual

reading and cultural contextualization were still

Critical Review On Zhuangzi’s Xu-Shi as an Epistemology and Its Intercultural Encounter

247

inadequate to fully grasp the complexities of

Zhuangzi’s thought (Jiang, 2024; Rosker, 2022).

Thus, the third stage of research focused on the

intersection of Chinese and western interpretative

frameworks, seeking to explore Zhuangzi’s

philosophical content at the epistemological level.

Dominant scholars include Harold D. Roth, Brook

Ziporyn, Scott Cook, Rurbin Yang, and Chad Hansen

(Jiang, 2024). They not only examined Zhuangzi’s

ideas, but also delved into the structures of classical

Chinese prose, which they found the framing of

passage represent a mechanism of selecting language

and might lead to different mindset (Cheng, 2014;

Jiang, 2024; Kim, 2011; Porat, 2022; Ziporyn, 2020;

Zhu, 2019). These researchers emphasized that

Chinese and western cultures each maintain

distinctive logical presuppositions that shape their

modes of cultural expression and thought (Jiang,

2024; Rosker, 2022; Zhu, 2019). Consequently,

translating Zhuangzi requires a more mindful and

cautious approach to avoid oversimplified

interpretations or cultural misreadings.

After the short review on “xu-shi”’s experience of

intercultural encounter, the historical trajectory of

translating "xu" (虚) and "shi" (实) will be closely

examined next. The discussion below explores

existed interpretations and applications of "xu" and

“shi” seperately, including their origins, semantic

features, and their relationship to Zhuangzi’s original

view.

4 XU

In Zhuangzi, "xu" (虚) is a concept with rich and

multifaceted meanings. However, in different cultural

contexts and translation traditions, its specific

connotations are often simplified or reinterpreted

(Jiang, 2024; Yu, 2023; Zhu, 2019). The following

discusses several common translations of "Xu",

examining their origins, semantic features, and the

relationship to Zhuangzi's understanding of "Xu".

First, "xu" (虚) is often translated as "virtual" or

"artificial" in English. This interpretation captures

only a small part of the meaning of "xu", “xu ni” (虚

拟 ). focusing on it as "non-real but functionally

existing”. In the context of modern technology, this

translation treat the meaning of "xu" as “a similarity

to shi (实)”. However, this translation neglects other

deeper philosophical meanings of "Xu" in Zhuangzi's

thought. (Contact the author to see the visualization

of the diverse connotative meanings of “xu”).

Second, in the 19th century, "xu" ( 虚 ) was

commonly understood as "false" and "unreal" with an

inclination toward a contrasting of "real". It is one

slice of the original meaning of “xu” in Zhuangzi,

which is “xu jia” ( 虚假). In this interpretation, a

binary way of understanding the world is promoted.

Also, the concept of “false” and “unreal” were

conflated, as well, "true," and "real" has not

distinguished. In fact, in Zhuangzi’s original meaning,

xu-shi represent a circle where all points can be both

xu and shi at the same time, it transcend the binary

way of viewing the world. As well, the differences

between “true/false” and “real/non-real” is able to be

made in Zhuangzi (Chen, 2023; Hansen, 2024).

Third, influenced by western literary devices,

"xu" ( 虚 ) is sometimes interpreted as "fiction".

referring to constructing a novel or a story (xu gou,

虚构). This translation may capture Zhuangzi's

tendency to deconstruct the boundary between reality

and illusion. Zhuangzi uses fiction as an effective tool

to give argument in imaginary situations and

questioning the reality. In this case, we view the

meaning of fiction as a method of applying the

concept of "xu", which provide an evidence of

fictional texts could stimulate real human thinking.

This is one of the applications of dialectical thinking

in human language and thought. However, it is

important to note that the essence of "xu" is

epistemological in nature, and it is not merely an

application tool (Jiang, 2024; Chen, 2023; Hansen,

2024; Zhu, 2019).

Zhang (2019) discusses the application of "xu" in

historical writing, exploring the space of "xu" in

history studies that were recorded by language. Zhang

(2019) questions the imaginative space in the process

of recording history, passing history and receiving

historical facts through language, pointing out the

possibility of "fiction" elements existing within "real"

facts. This highlights the lack of consideration for the

epistemology of "Xu" and "Shi" in the development

of the historical discipline. If facts are "real," then is

language that record the “real” real or false?

Language can be "real," but it also sparks listeners’

meaning connection, and the space of connection asks

for imagination. Imagination belongs to fiction.

Zhang (2019) highlights this fallacy in the previous

methods for studying history. Zhang (2019) argues

that "imagination" (想象) combines both copying and

fiction, and that "fiction" ( 虚构) can refer to

fabrications without evidence, or reasoning and

narrative forms based on facts. Zhang(2019) proposes

Zhuangzi’s xu-shi epistemology as a way to

reconsider and reconstruct the learning science of

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history subject, which recognize the dynamic process

that brain experience when studying history.

Fourth, the selected translation, void, seems

similar to the concept of a hole in the center of a donut

(Yu, 2023; Zhang, 2019). A hole exists because it has

an edge, but the hole does not actually exist (Worley,

2016). To explain, "void" could be understood as

describing an empty space or area with nothing in it

(Yu, 2023; Zhang, 2019). Also, it refers to the

absence of something that was previously present, a

feeling of emptiness or lack of fulfillment (Yu, 2023;

Zhang, 2019). Zhuangzi’s “xu” also contain this

meaning (Hu, 2020; Hansen, 2024; Wang, 2009;

Ziporyn, 2020). However, the difference between

Zhuangzi’s "xu" (虚) and "void" is that "xu" is not a

static state, it contain the meaning of it could change

to a state that is not void at any time (Yu, 2023;

Zhang, 2019).

Fifth, “xu” was translated to “nihil”, which inter-

influenced with western philosophy of nihilism,

which led to "xu" being equated with a form of

negative denial (Hu, 2023; Lai, 2024; Jiang, 2024; Yu,

2023; Zhu, 2019). For instance, "nihil" can be

understood as referring to the concept of nothingness

or non-existence, talking about the absence of

meaning or value in life or existence, or even

describing a philosophical belief that life has no

inherent purpose or significance. This interpretation

overlooks Zhuangzi’s "xu" also contain meaning of

meaningless as the state at the start, the present and

the end of a being (Li, 2016). Differently, Zhuangzi

apply an positive implications for this “nihil”, which

consider meaningless as normal or even optimistic

(Liu & Yi, 2024; Hansen, 2024; Porat, 2022).

The sixth translation would be "illusion",

correspond to Chinese words “xu wang” (虚妄). It

emphasizes the idea that something that exists in the

realm of the material world is merely a feeling or a

sense, and questions whether this feeling is real

(Cheng, 2014; Dai, 2024; Hu, 2023; Liu & Yi, 2024;

Lu & Wang, 2024; Kim, 2011). This interpretation of

illusion (xu wang) is often associated with Buddhist

thought and its transmission.

Chen (2024) focuses on one of the various

interpretations of "xu" (虚), specifically, "xu wu" (虚

无, void). Chen (2024) explores how the concept of

void functions within Zhuangzi’s epistemology.

Specifically, void (xu wu) serves as the premise of all

thing, the essence of all thing, and their termination

as nothing. Chen (2024) points out that modern

Chinese readers and scholars often interpret

Zhuangzi's Dao as the objective law of beings.

However, Chen (2024) argues that Zhuangzi's Dao is

in fact nothingness. Importantly, Zhuangzi uses the

concept of nothingness to explain why he rejects the

use of causal thinking to make events seem plausible.

That is, before an event occurs, it hasn’t happened,

and before it hasn’t happened, it hasn’t happened at

all. Thus, the causal relationship between events does

not exist. Chen (2024) further argues that

void/nothingness is not the actual state of the world

but rather a perspective for understanding the law of

beings.

Lü (2024) highlights the difference between the

contemporary concept of "losing the self" (丧我) and

Zhuangzi's idea of "no self" ( 无我), while also

emphasizing how Zhuangzi’s epistemology of "Xu" (

虚 ) can be understood as a path to experience

"freedom and ease" (自由自在). Lü (2024) attempts

to supplement Zhuangzi’s concepts by drawing from

interdisciplinary theoretical perspectives, including

those of Han Bingzhe, Freud, and modern discourse.

Additionally, Lü (2024) uses Zhuangzi’s fable stories

to inspire reflection on the central theme of "how to

become a free and easeful person," though no direct

exploration of Zhuangzi’s epistemology is conducted.

Lü (2024) opens up the possibility of applying

Zhuangzi's philosophy of "Xu" and "Shi" to analyze

societal issues and deconstruct social psychology

research. Lü (2024) discusses the details that hinder

people’s understanding of mental health, the self, the

construction of their well-being matrix, and the

search for inner peace. Lü (2024) also points to the

concept of "decentralization" as a potential area for

further exploration in Zhuangzi's epistemology.

Similarly, Oh (2021) explores how Zhuangzi’s

understanding of "Xu" and "Shi" can be used to

achieve well-being.

Overall, the concept of "Xu" (虚), understood as

the Dao ( 道

) in Zhuangzi's philosophy, is highly

diverse and complex across different cultural

traditions. Different translation paths may either

emphasize certain interpretations (such as nihilism or

Buddhist interpretations) or weaken some of its

original connotations. In cross-cultural translation,

how to faithfully represent the dynamic and open

nature of Zhuangzi's "Xu" becomes a potential

direction for future research.

5 SHI

In Zhuangzi, "shi" ( 实 ) does not merely refer to

concrete material entities or objective reality in the

external world, but rather points to an internal,

spiritual state of truth (Chen, 2023; Cheng, 2014; Hou,

Critical Review On Zhuangzi’s Xu-Shi as an Epistemology and Its Intercultural Encounter

249

2008; Kim, 2011; Lai, 2024; Liang, 2018). This

understanding is significantly different from the

western concept of "reality" or "substance". In

western philosophy, especially in the tradition

represented by Aristotle, "reality" is often linked to

"substance," referring to entities that exist

independently and possess essential attributes. For

instance, a stone, a tree, or a human body are seen as

"real" because they conform to externally perceivable

characteristics that can be verified through

experience. This materialistic tendency positions

"reality" in the objective existence of the external

world. In contrast, Zhuangzi's "shi" emphasizes a true

state within the mind or consciousness (Fu, 2018).

This "shi" is a subjective experience, pointing to an

inner sense of truth, rather than merely referring to a

specific material entity (Fu, 2018). This state of truth

does not depend on the existence of external matter,

but is more about a mental or spiritual form of truth

(Fu, 2018). The way scholars grasp the meaning of

"shi" greatly influences their understanding of

Zhuangzi's epistemology. The following paragraphs

will explore various interpretations of "shi" from

research papers, while also identifying areas for

improvement in current studies.

When introducing "xu" (虚) above, "shi" (实) is

also mentioned. In order to explain the epistemology

of "xu-shi" (虚实), it is important to distinguish the

meaning of "shi" from concepts such as "true," "real,"

or "have." Modern scholars have also studied

Zhuangzi's concept of "Zhen" ( 真 ). Kim (2011)

introduced the concept of "truth" in Zhuangzi. In

Zhuangzi, terms such as "zhen ren" ( 真人, true

person), "zhen zhi" ( 真知, true knowledge), and

"zhen zai" (真宰, true ruler) appear and are often

translated into English as "genuine" or "real",

referring to the true essence or nature of a human

being (Kim, 2011). The opposite of "true" in this

context is "wei" (伪), which is often translated as

"false." The Chinese character "wei" consists of "人"

(human) and "为" (behavior), which suggests human

behavior, and its meaning is similar to that of the

English word "artificial". However, understanding it

solely from the perspective of character formation

could lead to logical issues—shouldn't "man-made

substance" be defined as "real substance"? Does

human behavior necessarily imply "untruth"?

However, in Zhuangzi's application, such narrow

reasoning is not adopted, because his prose style

shapes his logical thinking and constructs an

epistemology with unrestrained style (Jiang, 2024;

Kim, 2011). In Zhuangzi's context, "wei" refers to the

distortion that occurs when one forces the display of

"benevolence, righteousness, propriety, and morality"

without genuinely intending to embody them. It refers

to a kind of spiritual unwillingness. Here, both "wei"

and "zhen" (true) refer to the truth or falseness on a

spiritual level, which is aligned with Zhuangzi's

concept of "Shi" (real or true) as a mental or spiritual

state. Kim (2011) demonstrates the necessity of

studying "zhen" from a semantic perspective and

provides a comprehensive summary of the various

meanings of "zhen" in Zhuangzi.

However, this semantic approach to increase

intercultural competence remains limited to the

exploration of intercultural philosophy in Kim

(2011)’s era. Specifically, Kim (2011) reviews the

various connotative meanings of "zhen" in Chinese,

but it is written in English. The same words in English

can evoke different meanings for English readers.

This leads to questions about the epistemological

process that English learners undergo—whether it

triggers dialectical thinking, and whether these

connections are traceable, which are still unresolved

issues. Furthermore, after reading the text, the new

reflections that English learners constructing and

critiquing remain unexplored.

Lu (2024) highlights another aspect of Zhuangzi's

philosophy in intercultural contexts, specifically how

the same geographic region, over different periods of

time, leads to different cultural understandings and

translations of terms. For example, Lu (2024)

discusses the term "materialization" (物化,wu hua),

which in modern and contemporary contexts refers to

the process of converting abstract ideas into material

forms, and how the "materialization" of life is seen as

the dissolution of the spiritual subject of life and its

transformation into a focus on material desires. This

meaning is in direct contrast to the original meaning

of the same word "wu hua"(物化) in Zhuangzi's text.

In Zhuangzi's, "wu hua" refers to the spiritual state of

dissolving differences between things and achieving

a state of unity, often referred to as "齐物" (equalizing

all things). In this sense, Zhuangzi’s epistemology

asserts equality among things and between humans

and things.

Lu(2024) provides an insightful cross-era

translation of the term and reflects on both ancient

and modern cultures, showing how they mutually

reflect one another, offering new philosophical

insights. Lu(2024) applies Zhuangzi's epistemology

of "xu-shi" to the contemporary problem of how

technology causes modern humans to lose their sense

of true self. Lu(2024) proposes three different

strategies for dealing with the encroachment of

technology on human beings: conservative,

optimistic, and transcendent. This application of

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Zhuangzi's philosophy to contemporary issues of

humanity's interaction with technology offers

potential solutions to the challenges brought about by

the intersection of these two realms.

Liang (2018) compares Zhuangzi's understanding

of "Shi" with Descartes' understanding of truth,

discussing the essential differences between the

epistemologies formed by two individuals who both

use dreams to explore what truth is. Liang (2018) uses

Zhuangzi's allegorical stories as a starting point to

explain how people's attitudes, emotions, and

aesthetics in daily life are shaped by their

understanding of the world. Liang also reflects on

epistemology, suggesting that human attitudes and

emotions are influenced by individual

epistemological perspectives. However, Liang (2018)

interprets Zhuangzi’s understanding of "Shi" in a

pessimistic and negative light, viewing Zhuangzi’s

treatment of the spiritual world as "real" as a form of

passive resignation to the realities of the material

world. Liang (2018) believes that Zhuangzi treats

sensory perception as the sole way to understand the

world and rejects the process through which this

epistemology is formed.

Hansen (2024) uses the concept of "perspective"

as a framework to understand Zhuangzi's idea of

"Shi" (实). According to Hansen, Zhuangzi considers

the "real" (Shi) to be the perspective of a Being—that

is, the perspective held by an existing entity. Hansen

(2024) explains that every being provides a unique

perspective drawn from the various aspects of the

universe. Nature, in Hansen(2024)’s interpretation, is

visualized as an axis. Each being observes nature

from its own perspective. These perspectives is not

limited or modest but acknowledges the significance

of the existence of every being (Hansen, 2024). Each

of these perspectives from beings is considered

valuable. Furthermore, every being can also be

regarded as a type of nature. Beings themselves

become an axis, they accept others’ perspectives and

each being can view itself from the perspective of

others. Ultimately, after these diverse perspectives

are explored, nature—and beings as a type of

nature—are understood as a unified whole. This

whole is indivisible, with no exceptions or

distinctions (Hansen, 2024).

Through a review of interpretations of "shi" (实),

some researchers consider Zhuangzi's understanding

of Shi to be negative, while others view it as positive.

These differing perspectives cannot fully or

definitively define Zhuangzi's epistemology of xu (虚

) and shi (实). Instead, they largely depend on the

extent to which individual researchers capture the

meaning conveyed in Zhuangzi.

6 CONCLUSION

The following sections provide a summary of this

article and point out future implication. The article

addresses the lack of comprehensive literature

reviews on Zhuangzi's epistemology of "xushi". It

undertakes a critical review centered on this

epistemology to fill the gap, aiming to offer

possibilities for developing research methodologies

for studying multiple disciplinaries,

interdisciplinaries and sustainable humanities based

on Zhuangzi's xu-shi epistemology. As well, it is for

providing a potential framework for understanding

world in the digital era. The article begins by

introducing how Zhuangzi’s xu-shi as an

epistemology could be understood. It then

summarizes the three stages that xu-shi epistemology

has undergone during its translation into non-Chinese

languages. Following this, the author provides a

detailed review of the meanings, concepts, and

applications of "xu" and "shi" in contemporary

academic literature. Through this process, the author

uncovers how modern scholars interpret and apply

Zhuangzi’s ideas in their research. The author

highlights areas within each piece of research that

have room for further development.

The first direction for future research lies in

applying Zhuangzi's understanding of language.

Wang (2023) provides a comprehensive review of

Zhuangzi's three perspectives on language. Wang

demonstrates how Zhuangzi’s xu-shi epistemology

supports a complete linguistic framework. Zhuangzi

respects the initial state of language, which is

characterized by its "indeterminacy" and "fluidity."

Second, language has the capacity to reconstruct the

natural characteristics of all things, including

humans. Wang (2023) also emphasizes that

Zhuangzi’s view of the Dao is not simply about it

being "ineffable" or requiring silence as a substitute

for expression. Instead, language plays a vital role in

enabling the mind to explore truth from multiple

perspectives, allowing ideas to collide and generate

new forms of expression. To studying Zhuangzi’s

understanding of language, future research could

analyse language by using xu-shi as an

epistemological framework. The changing between

xu and shi in language would be analyzed and

contribute innovative language model.

Second, the study of xu-shi epistemology

provides possibilities for creating methodological

frameworks across disciplines. As reviewed earlier,

Zhang (2019) explores the relationships among fact,

record, imagination, and fiction, and how they can be

deconstructed through xu-shi epistemology to present

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251

a more inclusive understanding of history. Historical

imagination, through the use of metaphor and

narrative strategies, not only depicts facts but also

poetically refines them. This approach aligns with

Zhuangzi's concept of "xu" as a means of

transcending fixed, traditional notions of truth. For

Zhuangzi, "xu" is not mere emptiness but serves as a

complement to and a transcendence of "shi,"

enriching our understanding of reality.

The third implication of Zhuangzi’s xu-shi

epistemology lies in the study of sustainable

humanity. For example, in Chinese culture, humility

is regarded as a virtuous attitude. The word "谦虚"

(humility) contains the character "虚" (xu). How does

the semantic significance of "xu" function within the

concept of humility? Conversely, terms such as "实

诚" (honesty, sincerity) emphasize "实" (shi), yet

both humility and sincerity are positively valued traits

in Chinese cultural descriptions of humanity. Why

does Chinese culture regard human virtues as a

combination of "xu" and "shi"? Under what

conditions does "xu" take on positive connotations in

human ethics, and when does it become negative?

Similarly, how does "shi" shift between these roles?

These nuanced interactions between "xu" and "shi"

offer fertile ground for exploring sustainable human

development within a cultural context.

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