Analysis of the State-of-Art Dark Matter Candidate Search: Evidence

from Wimps and Axion

Yilun Lin

Quincy High School, Quincy, U.S.A.

Keywords: Dark Matter Candidates, Weakly Interacting Massive Particles, Axions, CAST-CAPP Collaboration,

Standard Model.

Abstract: Contemporarily, searching dark matter candidate remain a hot topic for physics and cosmology society. This

study discusses the recent progress of detection for dark matter particles in this paper. Particularly, this

research focuses on the efforts devoted to detecting WIMP and axion, including improvements in both

theoretical frameworks and experimental techniques. According to the discussions, although many questions

about dark matter candidates still don’t have a clear answer, refinement in experimental methodology leads

to more precise measurements. Benefiting by extension of the Standard Model, theory of dark matter also

develops rapidly and provides a deeper understanding of this field to the astrophysics community. However,

one notable point is that there are still many constrains in further detect efforts. The theoretical explanation

develops to be complicated while today technology is insufficient to verify such results derived from the

theory. The analysis provides a detail description about these limitations in the last few sections and also

discusses the possible developments of dark matter detection in the future. These results aim to summarize

the efforts particularly in the last five to ten years and offer a guideline for searching dark matter.

1 INTRODUCTION

The conceptual trajectory of dark matter reflects a

shift from gravitational anomalies to a cornerstone of

modern cosmology. Initially, postulated to account

for galactic rotation curves and cluster dynamics, its

theoretical status evolved through successive

observational milestones and theoretical refinements.

As detailed by Bertone and Hooper, the emergence of

particle dark matter candidates coincided with the rise

of precision cosmology, catalysing interdisciplinary

inquiry spanning astrophysics and high-energy

physics (Bertone & Hooper, 2018). Their historical

synthesis underscores not only the empirical

motivations but also the conceptual adaptability of

dark matter frameworks across decades of evolving

theoretical paradigms.

Understanding dark matter is pivotal to resolving

foundational discrepancies in cosmology and high-

energy physics. Its gravitational influence shape’s

galactic structure, yet its non-luminous nature evades

direct detection, suggesting physics beyond the

Standard Model (Bertone & Tait, 2018). Probing dark

matter aids in constraining cosmological parameters,

refining models of galaxy formation, and potentially

unveiling new particles (Lisanti, 2017). Moreover,

insights from dark matter dynamics could inform

quantum gravity and unify theoretical frameworks

across particle physics and cosmology (Ferreira,

2021). Thus, dark matter research serves as a crucible

for testing the limits of modern physics and

rethinking cosmic evolution.

In recent years, the field of dark matter detection

has experienced a significant evolution, characterized

by both technological advancements and theoretical

refinements that have expanded experimental

sensitivity. A fundamental shift has been the

diversification of detection methodologies, extending

beyond traditional Weakly Interacting Massive

Particles (WIMPs) to explore a wider spectrum of

possibilities, including ultralight candidates and

axion-like particles. A notable development involves

the LUX-ZEPLIN (LZ) experiment, which represents

a substantial achievement in direct detection utilizing

dual-phase xenon time projection chambers. The

results published in 2023 establish the most stringent

constraints globally on spin-independent WIMP-

nucleon cross-sections at that time, reaching

sensitivities below 10

cm² for a WIMP mass of

approximately 30 GeV/c² (Aalbers, et al., 2023).

Lin, Y.

Analysis of the State-of-Art Dark Matter Candidate Search: Evidence from Wimps and Axion.

DOI: 10.5220/0013864100004708

Paper published under CC license (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0)

In Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on Innovations in Applied Mathematics, Physics, and Astronomy (IAMPA 2025), pages 669-676

ISBN: 978-989-758-774-0

669

These findings effectively exclude substantial

portions of previously viable parameter space.

Concurrently, innovative methodologies have

been established to complement conventional

detection techniques. For instance, research has

proposed utilizing anisotropic Dirac materials to

enable directional sensitivity to dark matter particles,

employing the momentum-dependent anisotropy of

electron recoil patterns (Coskuner, et al., 2021).

These approaches are particularly valuable for

distinguishing dark matter signals from background

interference. The theoretical progression of axion

dark matter models has additionally stimulated

experimental innovation. Specifically, axion

quasiparticles within condensed matter systems—

such as topological insulators—have been proposed

as a medium to amplify axion-photon coupling,

presenting novel detection possibilities for sub-eV

dark matter particles (Schütte-Engel, et al., 2021). In

summary, the discipline has progressed toward a

more holistic approach. As elucidated in recent

literature, direct detection initiatives now incorporate

comprehensive evaluation of both signal reliability

and material limitations, while innovative detection

frameworks are rapidly acquiring theoretical and

experimental validation (Misiaszek & Rossi, 2024;

Hochberg, et al., 2022). These collaborative

endeavours underscore a fundamental transformation

in how physicists conceptualize and investigate the

enigmatic nature of dark matter.

This paper aims to overview the studies about

dark matter candidates during the recent years and

provide a rigorous discussion of dark matter

candidates based on recent experimental constraints.

The second section gives some brief information

about the dark matter, including the classification of

dark matter and so on. The third section focuses on

one of the most promising dark matter candidates,

i.e., WIMP. This section overviews the recent

detective methodologies and experimental results of

WIMP. Axion is another highly favoured and

extensively studied dark matter candidate. Recent

studies of Axion will be discussed in the fourth

section. The paper also discussed limitations of recent

studies on dark matter candidates at the fifth section

and offers prospects for future research on this field.

2 DESCRIPTIONS OF DARK

MATTER

Dark matter, an enigmatic, non-luminous component

of the universe, exerts gravitational influence while

mysteriously evading direct detection through

electromagnetic interactions. Scientists infer its

presence through various astrophysical and

cosmological observations—galactic rotation curves,

gravitational lensing, and patterns in the cosmic

microwave background. Physically speaking, dark

matter is thought to consist of particles that are stable,

massive, and either weakly interacting or completely

unresponsive to Standard Model gauge forces.

A crucial element in comprehending dark matter

is its classification. It is generally divided into three

main categories based on particle velocities during

structure formation: cold, warm, and hot dark matter.

Cold dark matter (CDM), comprising heavy, slow-

moving particles like the hypothetical WIMPs

(Weakly Interacting Massive Particles), remains the

prevailing paradigm owing to its effectiveness in

explaining the Universe's large-scale structure. CDM

facilitates hierarchical structure formation, where

small-scale structures emerge first before merging

into larger entities. Warm dark matter (WDM),

characterized by intermediate-mass particles with

non-relativistic velocities, addresses certain small-

scale inconsistencies in CDM models, such as the

"missing satellites" problem, without significantly

altering large-scale predictions. Hot dark matter

(HDM), primarily associated with light neutrinos,

moves at relativistic speeds during structure

formation, thereby smoothing density fluctuations

and contradicting the observed clumsiness of matter

at small scales.

Beyond this thermal categorization, dark matter

candidates are further diversified by their theoretical

origins. These include axions, sterile neutrinos,

gravitinos, and other particles arising from extensions

of the Standard Model, including super-symmetry

and string theory frameworks. Axions have garnered

particular interest due to their dual capacity to resolve

the strong CP problem while functioning as ultralight

dark matter. Non-thermal production mechanisms,

such as misalignment during the early Universe or the

decay of topological defects, render axions plausible

cold dark matter candidates. Though the fundamental

properties of dark matter (i.e., its mass range, self-

interaction cross-section, and potential couplings to

visible matter) remain elusive, theoretical studies

increasingly suggest its nature may be multifaceted.

Some models propose a multi-component dark sector,

consisting of particles with distinct masses and

interaction strengths, a notion supported by precision

cosmological simulations and phenomenological

modelling (Franceschini & Zhao, 2023).

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3 EXPERIMENTAL

EXPLORATION OF WIMPS AS

DARK MATTER CANDIDATES

Over the past few years, the search for Weakly

Interacting Massive Particles (WIMPs) has entered a

more sophisticated and challenging phase. Once the

cornerstone of dark matter hypotheses, WIMPs are

now tested across a broader landscape of experiments

and theoretical models than ever before. As detection

technologies mature and sensitivities reach

unprecedented thresholds, both new opportunities

and limits have emerged in the hunt for these elusive

particles. This section offers a closer look at some of

the key efforts from the astrophysical community to

identify WIMPs.

A particularly significant contribution comes

from the DarkSide-50 collaboration, whose recent

study focused on probing low-mass WIMPs using a

12 ton-day dataset collected by the dual-phase liquid

argon time projection chamber (TPC) (Agnes, et al.,

2023). What sets this experiment apart is its use of

underground-sourced argon, which contains vastly

lower levels of radioactive

Ar compared to

atmospheric argon, thus minimizing background

interference. The detector’s architecture enables fine-

grained spatial and timing information, and it

employs pulse shape discrimination (PSD) to

distinguish between nuclear and electronic recoils.

With these techniques, DarkSide-50 achieved

sensitivity to WIMP masses as low as 1.8 GeV/c

The experiment scanned a broad energy range

(approximately 0.1 to 200 keV) and reported no

detection signal, but succeeded in pushing the

exclusion limits for spin-independent cross sections

down to 1.1×10

at 46 GeV/c

, consolidating its

position at the forefront of low-threshold dark matter

experiments. The expected results and some collected

data are shown in Fig. 1 (Agnes, et al., 2023).

Figure 1: Data and background model compared to expected WIMP spectra (Agnes, et al., 2023).

While direct detection efforts like DarkSide-50

continue refining their methods, there is growing

momentum in high-energy physics to explore WIMPs

through precision measurement strategies.

Franceschini and Zhao examined the potential of

future muon colliders to reveal WIMP signatures

through electroweak precision observable (Arbey &

Mahmoudi, 2021). The logic here is not to spot

WIMPs directly, but to infer their presence via

quantum corrections to processes involving the Higgs

boson and electroweak gauge bosons. Their

simulations considered models in which WIMPs are

embedded within SU(2)L multiples, such as pure

Higgsions or winos, which subtly affect loop-level

observables like the S, T, and U parameters.

Assuming a 10 TeV muon collider, they estimated

sensitivity to WIMP masses up to 1.5 TeV. Unlike

direct detection, this approach is not limited by recoil

energy thresholds or background radioactivity, and

thus provides crucial complementary reach into the

parameter space.

Analysis of the State-of-Art Dark Matter Candidate Search: Evidence from Wimps and Axion

671

Theoretical and cosmological tools have also

joined the fray, expanding the toolkit available to

researchers. Borah et al. proposed a connection

between WIMP dark matter models and gravitational

wave spectra generated during first-order phase

transitions in the early universe (Borah, et al., 2022).

Their framework is grounded in scenarios where dark

sector symmetries--responsible for stabilizing

WIMPs, i.e., break spontaneously, releasing

gravitational radiation. These signals, if observed by

upcoming detectors such as LISA or DECIGO, could

indirectly trace the thermal history and couplings of

WIMP-like particles. In particular, the gravitational

wave spectral shape, including the peak frequency

and energy density, becomes a probe for underlying

dark sector parameters. This line of research

underscores the increasingly interdisciplinary nature

of dark matter studies, bridging high-energy theory,

cosmology, and observational astrophysics.

At the same time, the absence of conclusive

detection across decades of experimentation has led

some researchers to re-evaluate the WIMP paradigm

altogether. Bottaro et al. offered a comprehensive

review of the narrowing phase space for conventional

thermal WIMP models in light of the latest null

results from major detectors like LUX, XENON1T,

and PandaX (Bottaro, et al., 2022). Their analysis

synthesizes experimental constraints with relic

abundance calculations, revealing that many minimal

WIMP scenarios are now strongly disfavoured. For

instance, scalar or vector WIMPs with standard

electroweak interactions and masses between 10 and

1000 GeV are largely excluded by a combination of

direct detection and collider data. The author

advocates for a pivot toward less traditional

frameworks--such as feebly interacting particles,

inelastic dark matter, or multi-component models--

that may better accommodate the observed null

results without abandoning the WIMP concept

entirely.

Taken together, these developments paint a

picture of a field in transition. Direct detection

experiments like DarkSide-50 continue to refine

background suppression and extend sensitivity to

previously inaccessible low-mass regimes.

Simultaneously, high-energy physics offers an

alternative route through indirect observables and

precision measurements. Theoretical models are

increasingly being designed with a broader

cosmological perspective, recognizing that

gravitational waves or early-universe signals might

be just as important as nuclear recoil tracks in

understanding dark matter. Meanwhile, the critical

reassessment by Bottaro and colleagues injects a note

of caution and suggests that the community may need

to broaden its conception of what counts as a viable

WIMP. Ultimately, the search for WIMPs

exemplifies the evolving nature of scientific inquiry.

It is no longer confined to one experimental avenue

or theoretical model, but rather encompasses a

spectrum of ideas and technologies--each with their

own strengths and limitations. Whether WIMPs will

eventually be detected or ruled out remains to be seen,

but the sophistication and diversity of recent efforts

ensure that human beings are closing in on a more

definitive understanding of their role, or lack thereof,

in the cosmos.

4 AXIONS AS VIABLE DARK

MATTER CANDIDATES

Among the many candidates proposed to explain the

nature of dark matter, axions have gained renewed

attention in the last several years, not just for their

theoretical elegance but for the increasingly precise

methods developed to look for them. Born from the

Peccei-Quinn solution to the strong CP problem in

quantum chromodynamics, axions--if they exist--

could also fill the role of cold dark matter, provided

they were produced non-thermally in the early

universe. What makes them especially intriguing is

their unique signature: a weak coupling to photons in

the presence of magnetic fields, a property that can be

exploited in highly specialized laboratory settings.

An impressive example of this approach is found,

which demonstrated how the limits imposed by

quantum measurement noise could be circumvented

through the use of squeezed-vacuum states in a

resonant microwave cavity (Backes, et al., 2021). In

this setup, axions would convert into single photons

within a narrow frequency band around 5.7 GHz,

corresponding to axion masses close to 23.7 μeV.

Rather than relying on brute-force signal

amplification, the researchers enhanced sensitivity by

injecting engineered quantum noise into the cavity,

suppressing unwanted fluctuations and increasing

signal fidelity. Their measurements achieved around

a 37% noise reduction below the standard quantum

limit. Although this experiment covered a relatively

confined spectral region, it pushed the boundary of

what was previously considered experimentally

possible and provided a proof-of-concept that future

axion searches could benefit from quantum

metrology.

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Figure 2: Simplified outline of the CAST-CAPP setup (Adair et al., 2022).

Equally noteworthy is the CAST-CAPP

collaboration’s hybrid solar axion search, which

combined the infrastructure of the CERN Axion Solar

Telescope with high-sensitivity cavity systems from

CAPP as shown in Fig. 2 (Adair et al., 2022). In this

configuration, axions hypothetically produced in the

Sun’s core would convert into microwave photons

when encountering a strong transverse magnetic

field. The experimental setup featured a copper cavity

operating at cryogenic temperatures (about 2 K),

nested within a 9 T magnetic dipole, and tuned to scan

frequencies corresponding to axion masses between

roughly 20 and 24 μeV. The team achieved sub-100

Hz frequency resolution over more than 100 MHz of

bandwidth, which was an impressive technical feat,

considering the thermal and vibrational noise

challenges of such an arrangement. Although no

signal was observed, the experiment set stringent

upper bounds on the axion-photon coupling constant,

reaching sensitivity levels on the order of 10

-14

/GeV,

further narrowing the range of viable QCD axion

models. Turning to searches for invisible axions,

hypothetical particles that interact primarily through

gravity and extremely weak electromagnetic

couplings, Kim et al. designed a low-noise haloscope

targeting the 22 μeV mass range, approximately

matching a 5.3 GHz resonance (Kim, et al., 2024).

Their experimental platform employed a dilution

refrigerator to chill the apparatus to millikelvin

temperatures, a high-Q tuneable microwave cavity,

and a phase-sensitive detection circuit optimized for

narrowband scanning. Over a 500 kHz spectral

window, they achieved sensitivity down to

γγ~1.2×10

-15

/GeV, placing one of the tightest

constraints to date on axions in this mass range. This

experiment is particularly notable for combining fine

frequency resolution with long integration times in a

compact apparatus, a strategy increasingly favoured

for probing high-mass axion regions where signal-to-

noise ratios are expected to be especially low.

Meanwhile, the HAYSTAC Phase II experiment,

as reported by Bartram et al., pursued a broader-band

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673

approach, covering the 3.3-4.2 μeV mass range,

corresponding to frequencies between 0.8 and 1.0

GHz (Bartram, et al., 2021). This setup implemented

a squeezed-state receiver chain similar to Palken’s but

operated over a much larger scanning range and

longer data collection period--more than three weeks

of continuous runtime. The experiment ruled out

axion-photon couplings stronger than 2×10

-14

/GeV

across the entire mass window probed, extending the

exclusion zone for conventional QCD axion models.

What distinguishes HAYSTAC in this landscape is

the balance it strikes between spectral coverage and

quantum noise suppression, offering a viable path

forward for future large-scale searches.

Collectively, these experiments show a field that

is no longer speculative, but increasingly guided by

technological refinement. Microwave haloscopes,

once considered niche instruments, are now enhanced

by techniques from quantum information science,

such as parametric squeezing and ultralow-noise

detection chains. Moreover, collaborations like

CAST-CAPP illustrate the value of merging

astrophysical infrastructure with high-precision

laboratory components, offering hybrid approaches

that can tackle previously untouched regions of the

axion parameter space.

Another common theme is a shift toward

modularity and tunability: detectors now target mass

ranges in a more flexible and frequency-resolved

manner, allowing experimentalists to move from

deep-narrow to wide-shallow scans depending on the

physics targets. Cryogenic engineering, frequency

synthesis, and digital signal processing are becoming

just as important to axion searches as theoretical

modelling. Importantly, no confirmed detection has

been made, but the pace at which parameter space is

being excluded has accelerated significantly. What

was once an open field having, in just a few years,

become a dense network of constraints and

possibilities.

Looking ahead, upcoming experiments like

ADMX-G2 and MADMAX are expected to further

capitalize on these trends, scaling up cavity volume

and magnetic field strength while maintaining fine

control over noise. At the same time, newer

approaches involving dielectric haloscopes,

broadband photon counting, and cavity arrays

promise to further broaden the toolkit available to

experimental physicists.

In essence, axion dark matter searches have

transitioned from isolated laboratory curiosities into a

coordinated and multi-institutional scientific

campaign. The progress since 2020 illustrates how

creative experimental design informed by careful

theory is beginning to encroach on what was once

considered a vast and elusive space. Whether or not

axions turn out to be the key to dark matter, the

strategies developed in their pursuit are likely to

influence experimental physics for years to come.

5 LIMITATIONS AND

PROSPECTS

Despite the increasing technical sophistication of

current dark matter detection efforts, the search

remains deeply constrained by both fundamental and

practical limitations. One of the clearest challenges

lies in the sheer breadth of possible parameter space.

For both WIMPs and axions, viable mass ranges span

several orders of magnitude and couplings to ordinary

matter may be so weak as to elude even the most

sensitive instruments. In many cases, experiments are

only capable of probing narrow slices of this space at

any one time, which makes comprehensive coverage

a slow and often painstaking process.

Another issue that continues to hamper progress

is the complexity of background noise mitigation. As

detectors grow more sensitive, they inevitably

become more susceptible to spurious signals

including cosmic rays, ambient radioactivity, and

even mechanical vibrations. The painstaking process

of discriminating potential signals from background

events often dominates the analysis effort. For

example, the techniques required to isolate potential

axion-induced microwave photons or rare nuclear

recoil events are both hardware-intensive and

computationally demanding. Even when statistical

anomalies appear, they are rarely sufficient to

constitute a convincing detection, requiring months

or years of follow-up just to rule out false positives.

Theoretical ambiguity further complicates the

picture. While both WIMPs and axions arise naturally

in well-motivated extensions of the Standard Model,

neither is uniquely predicted. In practice, this means

that every null result leaves open dozens of

alternative interpretations. Adjusting model

parameters, introducing new symmetries, or

assuming non-standard cosmological histories can

shift the expectations just enough to put the signal out

of reach again. This moving target quality makes

long-term experimental planning difficult and often

forces researchers to hedge between different design

strategies rather than focus resources narrowly. In

other words, the outlook for dark matter research is

far from bleak. What has changed, especially in the

last five years, is the growing interdependence

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between experiment and theory. Instead of blindly

surveying massive swaths of parameter space, future

programs are expected to rely more heavily on model-

informed strategies. Experiments are becoming

modular, tunable, and more sharply focused on

specific interaction mechanisms. Quantum

technologies, once considered peripheral, are now

central tools for overcoming the fundamental noise

barriers of traditional detection systems.

Another reason for optimism lies in the

diversification of experimental platforms. From

microwave cavities and dielectric haloscopes to muon

colliders and gravitational wave observatories, the

range of techniques available to probe dark matter has

never been broader. This redundancy is not merely a

luxury; it is becoming a necessity. Given how elusive

dark matter appears to be, having multiple,

orthogonal approaches may be the only reliable path

toward confirmation. Moreover, the overlap between

cosmology, astrophysics, and particle physics is

finally beginning to feel less like an interdisciplinary

ambition and more like a working reality. It is now

common for a single research program to draw on

tools and insights from all three domains.

In the end, the most promising feature of the

current landscape may be its adaptability.

Researchers have shown that they are willing to pivot,

both conceptually and technologically, as new data or

constraints emerge. While no discovery has yet been

made, the combined pressure from theory,

computation, and precision measurement continues to

narrow the options. This convergence, even in the

absence of direct evidence, is itself a measure of

progress. The search for dark matter may still be one

of physics’ most difficult pursuits, but it is no longer

a shot in the dark. Instead, it is an increasingly

focused campaign.

6 CONCLUSIONS

To sum up, detection of dark matter candidates is

presently highly active while many efforts have been

dedicated, leading to various creative detect methods

emerging. The recent detect works include direct

detection and indirect detection. With theoretical

framework from string theory and super-symmetry

joining, some indirect detections are able to minimize

the interference from background radioactivity and

recoil energy thresholds. The second and third

sections respectively provide analytical discussions

of efforts dedicated to detection of WIMPs and axions

by the astrophysics community. Though the final

concrete answer to the dark matter particles is not yet

clear, these methods developed to refine and increase

precision of previous measurements, have gained

great attention and provide the community a further

understanding of dark matter. Nevertheless, the

recently detection efforts are still limited by

insufficiency of experimental techniques, which

constrain the search in an extremely narrow range. It

is emphasized that the theoretical explanation has

already developed to a pretty in-depth and highly

precise level while the experimental techniques are

not enough to verify the theoretical results. The

future study is promising to adjust and enhance the

theoretical works through more precise experimental

data. This paper offers a comprehensive overview of

dark matter candidates’ detection with particularly

focusing on WIMPs and axions, which is so important

in today’s understanding of the dark matter.

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