Applications of Superconductors in Electronic Components and

Energy Transmission

Xiaoyang Wu

New Oriental International School, Shenyang, Liaoning, China

Keywords: Superconductor, Electronic Components, Energy Transfer.

Abstract: Superconductors, due to their zero resistance, enable signal transmission with almost zero energy loss in

electronic components, especially excelling in high frequency and high sensitivity. The application of

superconducting materials will also enable the miniaturization of electronic components while avoiding the

reduced efficiency caused by overheating of electronic components. In terms of energy transmission and

storage, the application of superconductors can effectively increase transmission efficiency and avoid energy

loss, especially in the field of energy and power. The zero resistance property of superconductors means there

no resistance loss during power transmission, which can significantly reduce the power loss caused by

resistance in traditional power transmission, improve transmission efficiency, reduce energy waste, and lower

power generation costs and carbon emissions. In the field of superconducting energy storage, superconductors

can be used to create superconducting energy storage devices that enable rapid storage and release of

electricity, effectively regulate the peak-valley difference of the power grid, balance power supply and

demand, address the intermittency problem of renewable energy generation, and enhance the stability and

reliability of the power grid. Superconducting power generation can also be used to create superconducting

generators, which can improve power generation efficiency, power density, reduce equipment size and weight,

and lower operating costs.

1 INTRODUCTION

As human civilization moves towards the third energy

revolution, energy efficiency and the speed of

information transmission have become the key

bottlenecks restricting modern development.

Compared with traditional conductive materials, the

use of superconductors will save energy loss, which

is 8% to 15% of the average annual energy loss in

power transmission. Since the discovery of high-

temperature superconductors in 1986, although more

than 100 kinds of high-temperature superconductors

have been found so far, only three are useful (Xu,

2023). Some electronic components can be made

from this material. Devices made with it have the

advantage of high power efficiency and energy

conservation, and have obvious economic benefits in

terms of energy conservation. The zero resistance and

high current-carrying capacity of superconducting

materials have drawn much attention to the progress

of superconductivity research. Superconducting

https://orcid.org/0009-0006-1630-7228

materials are difficult to apply on a large scale

because their performance is greatly affected by

temperature and magnetic fields. Combining different

superconducting materials, as well as combining

superconducting materials with metal materials, can

combine the advantages of various conductors. The

results of various studies show that the thermal

stability, AC loss, mechanical properties, and other

properties of the composite superconductor have been

improved. In terms of energy storage, unlike using

chemical substances to store energy, superconducting

magnetic energy storage devices store energy using

the magnetic field generated by direct current in

superconducting material coils. Once the coil is

charged, as long as it remains cool, the energy can be

stored indefinitely and hardly decays. This article

introduces the development of superconductor

materials and their applications in electronic

components and energy transmission systems.

638

Wu, X.

Applications of Superconductors in Electronic Components and Energy Transmission.

DOI: 10.5220/0013848200004708

Paper published under CC license (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0)

In Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on Innovations in Applied Mathematics, Physics, and Astronomy (IAMPA 2025), pages 638-643

ISBN: 978-989-758-774-0

2 MANUFACTURING OF

SUPERCONDUCTORS

High-temperature superconductors can be made in

the form of sintered ceramics by mixing oxides in

their composition with carbonate powder and then

heating them in pure oxygen (900 °C -1000 °C) until

their resistance disappears. The critical temperature at

which they possess the properties of superconductors

is 90 K. In terms of chemical composition, the

thallium superconductor family is the largest

superconductor family, which encompasses almost

all the crystal structures that copper-based oxides

have. Besides the wide range of crystal structure types,

the thallium family is also the most chemically

diverse system among the four major families of

copper-based oxide superconductors. (Zhang, Sun, &

Yu, 2000). Similar to the fabrication of other copper-

based oxide superconductors, the synthesis of

thallium-based superconductors is accomplished

through solid-state chemical reactions at high

temperatures, and the raw materials used are

generally high-purity TI2O3, BaO2, SrO, and CaO.

Fine powders such as CuO were used (Xin, 2003). For

copper oxide superconductors at high temperatures

(e.g. YBa₂Cu₃O₇-δ, YBCO), solid-phase reaction is

often employed: high-purity Y₂O₃, BaCO₃, and CuO

powders are mixed in stoichiometric ratios and then

ground multiple times and sintered at high

temperatures (900-950 °C) to obtain precursors with

good single-phase properties. Subsequent oxygen

annealing (400-500 °C) regulates the concentration of

oxygen vacancies, significantly affecting the

superconducting critical temperature (T_c). To

improve flux pinning performance, a nanoscale

second phase (such as BaZrO₃) can be introduced as

an artificial pinning center.

3 APPLICATIONS OF

SUPERCONDUCTORS

3.1 Superconductor Transportation

Most iron-based superconductors' parent bodies

exhibit metallic behavior with antiferromagnetic

order. Superconductivity can be induced by gradually

suppressing the antiferromagnetic order of the parent

body through means such as applying high voltage.

(Li, Tao, & Xu, 2021). Superconducting cables can

be classified into low-temperature superconducting

and high-temperature superconducting based on the

characteristics of superconducting materials. The

cooling system in the liquid nitrogen temperature

zone is simpler than that in the liquid helium

temperature zone, so high-temperature cables have a

broader application prospect. (Li, 2017).

Superconductor cables can reduce energy loss more

than traditional cables and avoid energy loss due to

electromagnetic damping. Overall, superconductor

cables have the following advantages: low line loss,

large current-breaking capacity, small cable volume,

etc. At present, countries are also actively developing

cold-insulated superconductors. The insulation of this

type of cable is mainly distributed in a low-

temperature liquid nitrogen environment. Compared

with hot-insulated superconductors, it has less loss,

higher efficiency, lighter weight, and can transmit

power at high density. (Zhu, Bao & Qiu, 2012). For

example, the 500 m/77 kV cold-insulated HTS cable

developed by Sumitomo Denko of Japan has been

demonstrated in the Yokohama power grid with a

transmission loss of less than 0.1 W/m·kA; China's

"Key Technologies for Superconducting Power Grid"

project has enabled 1.2kA / 35kV three-phase AC

HTS cables to be connected to the Shenzhen grid,

with a multi-layer insulated Dewar tube design,

saving more than 20 million kilowatt-hours of

electricity per year.

3.2 Application of Superconductors in

Electronic Components

At present, large grain superconductors with high

critical current density can be prepared by the melting

process, which have good application prospects in

many engineering fields. A large current flowing

through the superconductor generates very little heat,

which can reduce the use of liquid helium and

develop helium-free magnets when used to make

wires. Superconductors can also be widely used in

transportation, mechanical processing, and major

scientific and technological projects. Superconductor

materials are free from liquid helium, for example,

used in transformers with lower total loss, lighter

weight, and lower cost compared to conventional

transformers. It can effectively increase the effective

power of the generator. (Liu, 2001). With the

development of electricity, FCL (Fault current

limator) can also effectively use superconductors, and

when the current passing through exceeds its critical

current, or the pulse magnetic field exceeds its critical

magnetic field, the superconductor changes from the

superconducting state to the normal state in a series

of operations to limit the current and protect the

circuit. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) magnets

Applications of Superconductors in Electronic Components and Energy Transmission

639

also make effective use of superconductor materials

(Wang, Feng, & Zhang, 2000).

Such as the 35kV/1.25kA cable project in

Shanghai, which has a transmission capacity of more

than five times that of conventional cables with

almost no energy loss. Nuclear fusion devices, such

as ITER, use Nb₃Sn superconducting magnets to

generate 12-13T strong magnetic fields, providing

key technical support for plasma confinement. In the

medical field, NbTi superconducting coils that

operate at 4.2K are core components of medical MRI

(1.5-9.4T), while new MgB₂ magnets are driving the

development of liquid helium-free MRI systems. In

weak electrical applications, SQUID magnetometers

have become the gold standard for

magnetoencephalography (MEG) and mineral

exploration with a sensitivity of 10⁻¹⁵T/ √ Hz.

Superconducting qubits, such as Transmon, as core

units of quantum computers, have coherent times that

exceed 100μs. For transportation, high-temperature

superconducting maglev trains (such as the Chengdu

test line) and ship propulsion motors (GE 36MW)

have shown potential for efficient transportation.

4 CHARACTERIZATION OF

SUPERCONDUCTIVITY

Because superconductors have zero resistance and

complete diamagnetization properties, hydrogen-rich

high-temperature superconductors are usually

synthesized under extreme conditions above 100 GPa,

and the magnetic signal of the sample is very weak,

presenting a huge challenge to the measurement of

complete diamagnetization. The characterization of

superconductors is mainly based on the phenomenon

of zero resistance. After the continuous efforts of

scientists to measure and experiment, some

measurements have also been made public, such as by

the Eremets team. It effectively improved the

characterization of hydrogen-rich high-temperature

superconductors from zero resistance and complete

diamagnetism, flux capture, etc. Chen & Wan (2024)

lays a solid technical foundation for superconductors

in electronic components and energy transfer. AC

impedance spectroscopy can effectively characterize

the complex conductivity of superconductors under

an alternating electric field, and its imaginary

response can reflect the dynamic behavior of flux

vortices. Microwave surface resistance

measurements (such as the resonant cavity method)

are sensitive to the bandgap structure, which has

confirmed that copper oxide superconductors have D-

wave symmetry characteristics. Recent developments

in nonlinear electrical transport measurement

techniques, such as high-order harmonic analysis,

have provided a new approach to studying

superconducting fluctuations and quantum phase

transitions. In addition, scanning tunneling

microscopy (STM) can directly observe the

superconducting energy gap and quasiparticle density

at the nanoscale, providing direct evidence for

understanding unconventional pairing mechanisms.

5 THE ROLE

CHARACTERISTICS OFF

ELEMENT IN OXIDE

SUPERCONDUCTORS

Since the discovery of superconductors by Bednorz &

Muller (1988), element substitution has been A major

approach to preparing new materials and

manufacturing superconductors, such as cation

substitution for obtaining Y series, Bi series, etc. By

partially replacing O in high-temperature oxide

superconductors with F, and causing changes in the

overlapping numbers of other elements in the unit cell,

F in F superconductors is less likely to be oxidized

and destroyed by external conditions and is much

more tolerant than superconductor materials without

F. Due to the essential differences between F and O,

the substitution of O by F has a series of essential

effects on oxide superconductor materials, providing

a reference for the exploration of superconducting

machines (Deng, Wang, & Chen, 2003).

6 UNCONVENTIONAL

SUPERCONDUCTORS

Unconventional superconductors also have properties

such as zero resistance, but the formation mechanism

of Cup-amber pairs and the symmetry of

superconducting wave functions are very different

from those of conventional superconductors.

6.1 Heavy Fermionic System

Heavy fermionic systems also weigh electron systems.

Heavy fermionic materials have an electron-specific

heat coefficient hundreds of times higher than that of

ordinary metals at low temperatures. Previously

discovered fermionic superconductors were

concentrated in 4f or 5f electronic systems. Recently,

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640

Luo Xigang et al. conducted experiments to

demonstrate the superconducting behavior of heavy

fermions in 3d electronic systems. It has been proven

that AFe2As2 (A=K, Rb, Cs) do conform to the

universal behavior satisfied by heavy fermionic

superconductors. (Luo, Wu, & Chen, 2017).

Fermions, as one of the earliest discovered classes of

unconventional superconductors, have very low

superconducting transition temperatures. It may not

be of great significance from a practical perspective,

but it is significant from a research perspective.

Superconductivity has been recognized as one of the

most deeply understood phenomena in condensed

matter physics. The emergence of heavy fermionic

superconductors and the many anomalous properties

they exhibit make it a field of study that is both full

of contradictions and problems and challenging Dong

(2011).

6.2 Copper Oxide Superconductors at

High Temperatures

In 1986, Swiss physicist Bednorz and others at IBM

LABS discovered copper oxide superconductors with

perovskite structures, whose superconducting

transition temperature is much higher than the highest

known conventional superconductor temperature

(Bednorz & Muller, 1986). Copper oxide

superconductors are often described as twisted,

oxygen-deficient multilayer perovskite structures.

Copper oxide superconductors not only have

superconductivity at high temperatures, but also a

very rich electron phase diagram that varies with load

concentration due to an electron correlation effect.

(Luo, Wu & Chen, 2017) The crystal structure of

copper oxides has quasi-two-dimensional properties

and is composed of alternating layers of conductive

CuO

planes and charge-transport layers (such as

CuO chains in YBCO, BiO layers in BSCCO). By

chemical doping (such as Sr substitution in

La₂₋ₓSrₓCuO₄ or oxygen content regulation (such as δ

variation in YBa₂Cu₃O₇₋δ, Carriers can be introduced

into the insulating parent body to form a

superconducting state. Its phase diagram shows a

complex competitive order:

1 Antiferromagnetic insulating state: Undoped

parent, due to strong Coulomb repulsion (Mott

insulation) and antiferromagnetic order. No

superconductivity;

2 Underdoped regions: Pseudogap phenomena

appear on the left side of the superconducting dome,

possibly related to pre-formed electron pairs or

topological order;

3 Optimal doping: T peaks at a carrier

concentration of 0.16

6.3 Iron-Based Superconductor

In early 2008, Professor Hideo Hosuno's team from

Tokyo Institute of Technology in Japan discovered

superconductivity at 26K, which immediately drew

widespread attention from the superconducting

community. Twenty years later, this discovery

sparked another wave of research on high-

temperature superconductivity. (Kamihar et al. 2008).

Since then, scientists have successively discovered a

series of iron-based superconductor materials with

high transition temperatures. These materials, with

FeAs/FeSe layers as their structural core, exhibit

layered characteristics similar to cuprates and

possible unconventional superconducting

mechanisms, but the coexistence of antiferromagnetic

order and superconducting states in their parent

bodies, multi-orbital electron correlation effects, and

higher upper critical magnetic fields offer a new

perspective for exploring high-temperature

superconducting mechanisms. Iron-based

superconductors can be upgraded to above 55 K

through element doping (such as Co and Ni replacing

Fe), pressure regulation or interface engineering

(such as monolayer FeSe/SrTiO₃ interface systems),

and their rich phase diagrams and electronic

structures (such as s± wave pairing symmetry)

challenge the conventional BCS theory. (Luo & Chen,

2017). The superconducting properties of on-based

superconductors are closely related to their electronic

structure. Unlike copper oxides, iron-based

superconductors typically present an anti-iron

metallic state rather than an insulating state, and their

superconductivity can be induced by electron or hole

doping. Phase diagram studies suggest that

superconducting domes are typically adjacent to

antiferromagnetic sequences, suggesting that spin

fluctuations may play a significant role in

superconducting pairing. Experimental observations

of multi-band characteristics and s± wave pairing

symmetry support the theory of multi-band

superconductivity. Notably, iron-based

superconductors exhibit superior performance under

strong magnetic fields, such as the upper critical field

Hc2(0) of Ba0.6K0.4Fe2As2 reaching over 70T,

which gives them a unique advantage in high-field

magnet applications. In terms of material preparation,

the growth of high-quality single crystals is the key to

studying the intrinsic properties. The flux method is

suitable for the preparation of "122" type single

crystals, while the gas phase transport method is more

Applications of Superconductors in Electronic Components and Energy Transmission

641

suitable for "11" type compounds. Thin-film epitaxy

techniques, such as MBE, have made a breakthrough

in FeSe/STO interface superconductivity research. In

application development, the preparation of iron-

based superconducting wire strips (such as Ba122)

has achieved kilometers-level continuous production,

but their critical current density (Jc) still needs to be

improved. The main challenges in the current

research include the complex interaction mechanisms

of multi-band systems, the microscopic origins of

interfacial enhanced superconductivity, and the

performance optimization of practical materials. In

the future, iron-based superconductors are expected

to make significant breakthroughs in both

fundamental research and practical applications

through means such as pressure regulation, interface

engineering and nanocomposites.

7 CONCLUSIONS

Superconductors, as a new type of material with

advantages such as zero resistance, can be widely

used in various future electronic products, have

attracted academic attention so far. For example,

superconducting motors, superconducting cables,

maglev trains, etc. If people can effectively utilize the

advantages of superconductors such as complete

demagnetization, magnetic fields can be used to

effectively transform various electronic products.

Conclusion: Conventional superconductors (such

as NbTi, Nb₃Sn): following the BCS theory, phonon-

mediated S-wave pairing, critical temperature usually

< 30 K, with complete diamagnetization and zero

resistance properties. It is the most widely used type

of superconductor. The core application areas of

superconductors are energy transmission and

electronic devices. Superconducting cables (such as

MgB₂ cables) can carry five times the current density

of traditional cables, but require a low-temperature

system to maintain. A fault current limiter (FCL)

enhances grid stability. Superconducting quantum

interferometers (SQUIDs) are used for detecting

extremely weak magnetic fields (medical, geological).

Applications of superconducting single-photon

detectors (SNSPDS) in quantum communications.

Superconducting cables (such as MgB₂, YBCO) can

transmit current without resistance loss, significantly

improving grid efficiency (the transmission loss of

about 5-10% in traditional grids can be reduced to

nearly 0%). It is suitable for urban power supply and

renewable energy grid connection (such as long-

distance transmission of wind power and photovoltaic

power). Superconducting magnetic energy storage

(SMES) can charge and discharge instantaneously for

grid frequency regulation and emergency power

supply. Superconducting fault current limiter (FCL)

prevents grid short-circuit accidents. Research on

superconductors aims to explore the physical

mechanisms of zero resistance and complete

diamagnetism (the Meissner effect) and to develop

their revolutionary applications in energy, healthcare,

transportation and other fields. The discovery of high-

temperature superconducting materials has greatly

boosted strong electrical applications such as

superconducting cables and maglev trains, as well as

weak electrical applications such as quantum

computing and superconducting detectors. The

current research is focused on raising the critical

temperature of superconductivity, understanding the

mechanism of unconventional superconductivity, and

addressing the bottlenecks in the large-scale

production of materials. Future breakthroughs could

achieve room-temperature superconductivity,

revolutionize power transmission and storage

technologies, and provide new solutions for clean

energy and efficient electronic devices.

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