Assessment of Visuomotor Coordination in Team Sports:

Concept and Implementation

Anton Ezhov

1,2 a

, Anna Zakharova

1,3 b

and Kamiliia Vinokurova

1 c

Ural Federal University, 19 Mira street, Yekaterinburg, Russia

Hockey Academy Spartakovets ,31 Engelsa street, Yekaterinburg, Russia

Innovative centre “Rekordika”, 8 Lyzhnetskay embankment, Moscow, Russia

Keywords: Light Sport Training Systems, Team Sports, Sport Game Situation, Visuomotor Coordination, Reaction Time.

Abstract: Coordination skills are among the main components of success in team sports. Despite the wide development

and distribution of methods for coordination development in sport, there is a lack of objective monitoring

methods for coordination assessment especially in the context of changes in the terms of game situation. The

article presents a unique innovative method for objective coordination assessment based on the team sport

training system “Co-Star”. Co-Star includes fixed position of sensors and proprietary activation algorithms.

Thus an objective and reliable evaluation of the bond «stimulus - reaction - precise action» is carried out. This

evaluation method allows to estimate both athlete’s own (general) visuomotor coordination as well as specific

coordination with the use of game equipment (ball or racket). Co-Star system may be useful in training and

testing athletes of all ages from young ones to professionals in team sports. The proposed athletes age norms

formed as a result of our research potentially would help in sports selection.

1 INTRODUCTION

The significance of coordination development has

been the subject of extensive research in the field of

sports science (Issurin, Lyakh, 2017). Coordination is

particularly crucial in competitive sports, where it

encompasses a multitude of elements, including the

ability to swiftly assess the situation, react with

precision, make conscious decisions and fulfil motor

actions efficiently. Above mentioned elements

together contribute to achieving successful outcomes

in team sport, which may take the form of scoring a

goal, dribbling under pressure, skillfully taking a ball

from opposing teams, or accurately passing it to a

teammate. All the components of a sporting

performance are accomplished through a carefully

coordinated sequence of "stimulus - reaction - precise

action". The success of an athlete much depends on the

effectiveness of this sequence (Breaker, 2011,

Lienhard 2019, 2021, Smith, 2021).

Despite the wide variety of potential methods

available for developing coordination skills through

https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0541-0650

https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9550-1793

https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2967-2655

the use of various simulators and supplementary tools,

a significant gap remains in the availability of methods

for reliable assessment of situational coordination. This

issue requires the development of new methods.

The development of digital technologies allows us

to use them as sports monitoring instruments and

simulators for response speed training. Modern Light

sport training systems sensors (Levy et al., 2021)

operate on the principle of "stimulus 1-response-

stimulus 2…" that enables to create unexpected stimuli

and measure response times, which can be used as a

basis for developing new methods of assessment.

The concept of our investigation was: using sport

light training system permits to assess the spatial

visuomotor coordination which has crucial

importance in team sports.

2 METHODS

The presentation of the methodology for visuomotor

coordination assessment was divided into three key

Ezhov, A., Zakharova, A. and Vinokurova, K.

Assessment of Visuomotor Coordination in Team Sports: Concept and Implementation.

DOI: 10.5220/0013837500003988

Paper published under CC license (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0)

In Proceedings of the 13th International Conference on Sport Sciences Research and Technology Support (icSPORTS 2025), pages 269-273

ISBN: 978-989-758-771-9; ISSN: 2184-3201

269

components: method design (a description of the

apparatus with software and a process of their

development), testing procedure and data analysis.

2.1 Method Design

The aim was to develop a spatial visuomotor

coordination testing system for assessment of the

performance speed of a coordinated precise action in

response to a change in the situation around the athlete.

It required selection of sensors with their software,

sensor positioning and technical solutions aimed both

at ensuring their stability, as well as adaptability,

mobility, and versatility of the testing system.

1) It would be most advantageous to use

existing reflex simulators as a starting point.

2) The sensors need to be fine-tuned to capture

the data as accurately as possible.

3) The software must guarantee objectivity and

precision in recording the "stimulus - reaction - precise

action" time.

4) Sensors must be fixed around the athlete.

5) To activate both legs and arms the sensors

should be above the floor, better on racks.

6) The number of stimuli must be sufficient to

alter the situation around the athlete, without

overwhelming them by excessive sensors.

7) At least one sensor should be positioned

outside the athlete’s field of vision.

8) The racks on which the sensors are mounted

must be secured with clamp, forming a closed loop.

9) The contour side of the system should be

designed to optimally accommodate the

anthropometric characteristics of the athlete.

10) The system should allow the conduct of

tests involving game equipment (balls), providing a

comprehensive evaluation of the athlete's performance.

11) The system must be collapsible and

compact, facilitating transportation and field testing in

various environments.

What has been achieved?

In the development of the Co-Star system we have

opted for X-light, light-based sports sensors. The

sensor contains LEDs and a photodiode. This choice

was based on a thorough analysis of existing lighting

simulation devices available in the market (Ezhov et

al., 2021).

These sensors are easily disassembled, allowing

fine tuning to improve the accuracy of data recording:

increasing the sensitivity of touch sensors and

changing the operating mode of the photosensor.

Thus, we obtained sensors with deactivation distances

in the range 1-3 centimeters.

The sensors are of a hexagonal shape with a side

length of 70 millimeters and each weight is only 0.15

kilograms (Figure 1). These sensors are easily

integrated into universal camera mounts.

Figure 1: Co-star sensor.

Moreover, the standard X-Light software has been

enhanced with changes of settings for light

stimulation, remote and tactile deactivation and time

fixation algorithms.

To reduce the impact of diverse anthropometric

features of athletes and ensure a closed circuit with an

adequate number of sensors, including one positioned

outside the visual field, we conducted an experiment

selection of the shape of a regular pentagon (Figure

2). The side length of 1 500 millimeters has proven to

be optimal for individuals with varying ages and

anthropometric dimensions.

Figure 2: Co-star scheme.

Sensors were fixed on a tripod equipped with a

standard 3/4-inch photographic bracket allowing for

height adjustment in the range of 500-1200

millimeters (Figure 3).

icSPORTS 2025 - 13th International Conference on Sport Sciences Research and Technology Support

270

Figure 3: Co-star tripod + photo mount.

Figure 4: Co-star jumpers.

Figure 5: Co-star.

The tripods were firmly secured together using

collapsible rods 1,480 millimeters in length with a

detachable clip (Figure 4) to form a regular

pentagonal configuration (Figure 5). Thanks to the

pentagon shape of the sensor positioning the system

received its name Co-Star.

To facilitate transportation necessary for field

testing Co-Star system has been designed in a

modular format that can be packed into Co-Star

backpack (Figure 6).

Figure 6: Co-star packaging

2.2 Co-Star Testing Method

The test is performed after a pre-test warm-up. The

athlete steps inside the perimeter of Co-Star and takes

any position. The athlete is instructed to deactivate

the light sensors as quickly as possible. Light sensors

activate randomly after the "READY? GO!”

command. Sensor activation delay (the time between

deactivation of the sensor and activation the next one)

is about 0.1 s. The test duration is 30 seconds. The test

result is calculated by the Co-Star software as average

sensor deactivation time with precision 0.01 s.

Subject of the test is making two separate trials. Best

result of both attempts is recorded.

Figure 7: Co-Star standard test.

Assessment of Visuomotor Coordination in Team Sports: Concept and Implementation

271

2.3 Description of the Participants

Group

The research involved a heterogeneous group of more

than 3,000 athletes (males), aged from four to forty

years, who were competing in a variety of sports (ice

hockey, bandy, basketball, football and futsal) as well

as 266 (147 males, 119 females) non-athletes.

2.4 Statistical Analysis

Statistical analysis was performed with the use of

statistic software MS Excel. We used descriptive

analysis of the obtained data. Mean value (M),

standard deviation (SD), minimum and maximal

values of the measured parameters were calculated.

Co-Star test is a new technology with no average

data for athletes of different sports and different age

groups. To establish the levels of Co-Star results M ±

2/3 SD (25

percentile and 75

percentile) were

calculated. The indicators between 25

and 75

percentiles were considered as average level. The

visuomotor reaction time less than M - 2/3 SD (75th

percentile) was assumed as strong or an Athlete’s

norm.

3 RESULTS & DISCUSSION

The Co-Star results reflect the ability to perform fast

motor actions (speed), the ability to quick navigation

in space (motor and coordination skills).

3.1 Co-Star Results of Athletes &

Non-Athletes

As a result of the achieved standardization of Co-Star

testing, it became possible to form databases of

visuomotor coordination in groups of athletes and

non-athletic individuals. Non-athletes are represented

by students and university staff. Age from 19 to 35

years (Table 1).

Table 1: Co-Star results of non-athletes, ms.

M±SD

min-max

Male (n=147)

1148±126

820 ̶ 1500

Female (n=119)

1237±134

900 ̶ 1630

Women exhibit lower level of visuomotor

coordination, which is a female gender feature (Murray

et al., 2018).

The results of Co-Star tests of professional athletes

(ice hockey players, basketball players, soccer players

and futsal players) aged 19-35 years (Table 2) are

much better than non-athletes’ Co-Star results.

Table 2: Co-Star results of professional athletes, ms.

Sport

M±SD

min-max

Ice hockey (n=60)

980±22

850 ̶ 1020

Football (n=26)

1150±24

1020 ̶ 1170

Futsal (n=29)

1010±34

990 ̶ 1050

Basketball (n=35)

1020±36

980 ̶ 1060

The research revealed significant differences in

visuomotor coordination in professional athletes of

different kinds of team sports (Table 2). The Co-Star

results much depend on particular sports

requirements (Zakharova et al., 2019).

In ice hockey a faster reaction and, accordingly,

visuomotor coordination are required due to the

higher speed of the puck and the players in

comparison to the players and the ball in football.

Visuomotor coordination results of futsal and

basketball players are very close to each other: futsal

and basketball are similar in terms of the speed of

change in the game situation and ball movement.

For basketball players a comparative test we

conducted: the first two attempts were done as the

standard test and then 2 attempts were fulfilled with

dribbling (Figure 8).

Figure 8: Co-Star basketball dribbling test.

Table 3: Co-Star results of basketball players, ms.

M±SD

min-max

Standard test (n=35)

1020±36

980 ̶ 1060

Co-Star dribbling test

(n=35)

980±47 910–1050

The basketball players (Table 3) demonstrated a

higher dribbling performance compared to the standard

Co-Star test. This can be explained by the fact that in

the process of controlling the ball, the senses of a

professional basketball player become more acute, and

his neuromuscular connections are maximally

icSPORTS 2025 - 13th International Conference on Sport Sciences Research and Technology Support

272

activated to fulfill the test task. Co-Star dribbling test

result indicates a high level of dribbling skills among

basketball players and can be used as an objective

indicator of their technical readiness.

After conducting a significant number of tests (the

total number of participants of the research was more

than 3,000 of different ages undergoing sports training

in game sports), the age norms for the Co-Star test were

formed (Table 4).

Table 4: Co-Star results evaluation criteria for team sports

players of different ages, ms.

Ages

Average

Strong

4-6

2300–1900

<1900

7-10

1890–1520

<1520

11-14

1510–1100

<1100

15-19

1090-950

<950

20-35

940-850

<850

35+

1100–1270

<1100

The level of visuomotor coordination steadily

increases until the age of 20, which coincides with the

growth and development of the athlete as well as the

improvement of their sport skills.

Athletes after 20+ demonstrated stable good level

of visuomotor coordination in the Co-Star test.

After the age of 35, however, indicators of

visuomotor coordination tend to decrease due to age-

related physiological changes in athletes, requiring

further study.

As Co-Star was designed for the field test it can be

also provided on ice (Figure 9).

Figure 9: Co-Star ice test.

4 CONCLUSIONS

Co-Star is informative and reliable method of spatial

visuomotor coordination assessment. Originality of

test and measurement design easily supply a coach

with valuable information about complex athletes’

abilities (response time and the ability to coordinate the

body segments quickly and precisely) which are of

great value in team sports.

Despite the fact that the Co-Star study is at the

initial stage, the obtained results can be useful for sport

scientists and sports training specialists for sport

selection, training management and coordination

control.

AKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Funding from the Ministry of Science and Higher

Education of the Russian Federation (Ural Federal

University, the State Assignment № 075-03-2023-

006/13 (FEUZ–2023–0054).

REFERENCES

Issurin VB, Lyakh VI (2017) Coordination Abilities of

Athletes: Basics of Manifestation, Evaluation and

Elucidation: A Review. J Athl Enhanc 6:2. doi:

10.4172/2324-9080.1000255

Breaker, Ya. (2011) Brain charging: neurobiology: an

effective way to solve any problems. St. Petersburg:

Vector

Lienhard, L. (2021) Schnelligkeit beginnt im Gehirn: Mit

Neuroathletik das Reaktionsvermögen verbessern und

die Schnelligkeitsleistung optimieren. Riva Verlag.

Lienhard, L. (2019) Training beginnt im Gehirn: Mit

Neuroathletik die sportliche Leistung verbessern. Riva

Verlag.

Smith, R.W. et al. (2021) Perceptual fatigability and

neuromuscular responses during a sustained, isometric

forearm flexion muscle action anchored to a constant

level of perceived exertion / R.W. Smith, J.P.V. Anders,

T.J. Neltner, J.E. Arnett, J.L. Keller, T.J. Housh, G.O.

Johnson. In NeuroSports. 2021. Т. 1, №. 2.

Levy A. de-Oliveira, Matheus V. Matos, Iohanna G. S.

Fernandes, Diêgo A. Nascimento, Marzo E. da Silva-

Grigoletto. (2021) Test-Retest Reliability of a Visual-

Cognitive Technology (BlazePod™) to Measure

Response Time. Journal of Sports Science and Medicine

(20), 179 - 180. https://doi.org/10.52082/jssm.2021.179

Ezhov, A., Zakharova, A. & Kachalov, D. (2021) Modern

Light Sport Training Systems: Critical Analysis of Their

Construction and Performance Features In 9th

International Conference on Sport Sciences Research

and Technology Support, icSPORTS- 2021

Murray SO, Schallmo MP, Kolodny T, Millin R, Kale A,

Thomas P, Rammsayer TH, Troche SJ, Bernier RA,

Tadin D. Sex Differences in Visual Motion Processing.

Curr Biol. (2018) Sep 10;28(17):2794-2799.e3

Zakharova, A., Mekhdieva, K., Krasilnikov, V., Timokhina,

V. (2019). Soccer Players’ Agility: Complex Laboratory

Testing for Differential Training. In 7th International

Conference on Sport Sciences Research and Technology

Support, icSPORTS- 2019

Assessment of Visuomotor Coordination in Team Sports: Concept and Implementation

273