Terahertz Metasurfaces Research Progress and Applications

Siwei Zhu

Physics Department, Capital Normal University, Beijing, China

Keywords: Terahertz, Metasurface, Dynamic Tunability, Graphene, Wavefront Control.

Abstract: Terahertz waves have strong penetration, wide frequency bands, and non-ionizing properties, and have

received extensive attention from both the industrial and scientific communities in recent years. Metasurfaces,

as two-dimensional planar metamaterials, possess three properties: subwavelength structures, lightweight,

and flexible regulation. The combination of the two has led to better development in both research and

application fields. This paper focuses on the breakthroughs in the core design of terahertz metasurfaces,

including materials, structures, and manufacturing technologies, as well as the realization of functions such

as wavefront regulation and imaging technology, polarization and mode control, and dynamically adjustable

functions. It also summarizes the current challenges faced by terahertz metasurfaces, such as how to balance

manufacturing precision and cost, and the need to optimize the power consumption of existing dynamic

metasurfaces. In addition to the current application fields, future research and development directions also

include potential solutions such as interdisciplinary communication and integration with artificial.

1 INTRODUCTION

Terahertz waves (0.1-10 THz) connect the special

frequency bands of photonics and electronics with

their unique penetrating, non-ionizing, and high-

bandwidth characteristics, showing revolutionary

potential in communications, imaging, and

biomedicine. However, due to the weak response

characteristics of natural materials in the terahertz

band and the difficulty in achieving efficient

regulation with traditional optical devices, terahertz

technology has long faced bottlenecks and has been

difficult to apply. With the rapid rise of new

application areas such as 6G communication and

high-resolution non-destructive testing, there is an

urgent need for breakthroughs to enable the efficient

application of terahertz. The development of

metasurface technology offers new opportunities for

the design and application of terahertz functional

devices.

The rise of metasurface technology offers a new

way to solve this problem. Metasurface materials are

two-dimensional planar structures that allow for

flexible manipulation of the phase, amplitude, and

polarization state of electromagnetic waves through

the precise arrangement of sub-wavelength-scale

https://orcid.org/0009-0007-0131-7367

units. Their lightweight and customizable features not

only break through the diffraction limit but also

enable functional reconfiguration through dynamic

tunable materials, opening up new paths for the

miniaturization and intelligence of terahertz devices.

Therefore, terahertz metasurfaces have broad

prospects in application fields. However, terahertz

metasurfaces still face technical bottlenecks and

challenges, and in the future, they can also be

combined with the current popular artificial

intelligence and interdisciplinary research to achieve

breakthroughs.

This article focuses on the innovative

breakthroughs of terahertz metasurfaces in the past

five years, using a two-dimensional analytical

framework of "design manufacturing-function

realization". The paper aims to summarize the future

development trends and research directions of

terahertz metasurfaces, providing ideas and

references for further research in related fields.

2 PROGRESS IN TERAHERTZ

METASURFACE DESIGN

Conventional static materials have problems such as

high loss and limited adjustable parameters in the

522

Zhu, S.

Terahertz Metasurfaces Research Progress and Applications.

DOI: 10.5220/0013828800004708

Paper published under CC license (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0)

In Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on Innovations in Applied Mathematics, Physics, and Astronomy (IAMPA 2025), pages 522-528

ISBN: 978-989-758-774-0

terahertz band. Therefore, improvements are needed

in two directions: optimizing static metamaterial

surfaces and developing dynamic metamaterial

surfaces. This article will specifically analyze how

core design drives the performance improvement of

terahertz metasurfaces from three dimensions:

material innovation, structural design breakthrough,

and manufacturing technology progress.

2.1 Material Innovation

2.1.1 Static Materials

Static materials refer to those whose electromagnetic

properties remain unchanged under external stimuli

such as electric fields, magnetic fields, or light. Early

studies relied on metallic materials such as gold and

aluminium and dielectric materials such as silicon and

titanium dioxide, but the loss of materials and

structures and the frequency dependence limited the

ability to control.

To overcome these issues, Li et al. modified

silicon wafers with monolayer gold nanoparticles

(AuNP/AuNR) and found that the modulation depth

of terahertz waves reached 10-20 times that of bare

silicon, and the modulation rate was 8 times that of

silicon-based (Li, 2021). When modulating the phase

of terahertz waves with a mixture of gold

nanoparticles and toluene through laser irradiation,

the tunable bandwidth of (0.3-1.5 THz) was superior

to that of conventional liquid crystal technology. It

has been demonstrated that a new system composed

of static materials and other materials can also

optimize the performance of terahertz wave

regulation. Therefore, static materials still have

significant value in future terahertz metasurface

studies.

2.1.2 Dynamic Tunable Materials

A single regulation method is difficult to meet the

demands of complex scenarios, while dynamic

tunable materials such as graphene, phase change

materials (like VO₂), and liquid crystals have opened

up new paths for real-time dynamic regulation and

multi-functional integration of terahertz waves.

In recent years, many researchers have proposed

that the combination of different static materials to

form terahertz metasurface materials can enhance the

performance of functional devices. Chen et al.

designed a terahertz metasurface based on four

materials: metal, VO2, graphene, and polyimide,

combining the dynamic complementary properties of

graphene (electrically modulated) and VO₂

(thermally modulated) to break through the

limitations of a single regulation method (Chen et al.,

2024).

A wide-angle stabilized terahertz tunable

metasurface absorber based on liquid crystal material

and efficiency can be adjusted in real time by

changing the alignment direction of liquid crystal

molecules with an applied electric field and adjusting

their equivalent dielectric constant (Jing et al, 2023).

These dynamic tunable materials have unique

physical and chemical properties that allow them to

undergo significant performance changes under

external stimuli (such as light, electricity, heat, etc.).

It can be seen that graphene is more suitable for rapid

regulation of high-frequency terahertz waves, VO2 is

better for thermal drive regulation, and liquid crystals

are more advantageous in low-power electronic

control scenarios. The complementarity of the three

expands the application boundaries of dynamic

regulation.

2.2 Breakthrough in Structural Design

The traditional symmetrical resonant structure has a

single function and limited bandwidth. The new

structure design breaks through the physical

boundaries of electromagnetic control through multi-

degree-of-freedom, asymmetric, and dynamic

reconfigurable units.

Gradient phase metasurfaces achieve efficient

wavefront control through non-uniform element

arrangement to generate vortex beams and achieve

abnormal refraction; The multi-resonant coupling

structure (nested, fractal geometry) excites multiple

electromagnetic modes, broadens the working

bandwidth and enhances the field localization effect;

Tunable mechanical metasurfaces change cell

parameters in real time by stretching/folding the

flexible substrate, giving dynamic beam scanning

capabilities.

Kou et al. summarized a variety of typical

structures in the paper (Kou et al., 2019): 1. Metal

resonant structures (such as open ring, H-shaped,

cross-shaped, etc.) that achieve phase modulation

through geometric symmetry breaking; 2. Dielectric-

type structures (such as silicon columns, dielectric

block) that utilize the dielectric-resonant effect to

reduce ohmic loss; 3. Composite structures (metal-

dielectric multilayer stacking, tunable material

integration) combined with dynamic materials (such

as graphene, VO₂) to achieve

electrical/optical/thermal control dynamic response.

The design approach emphasizes the combination of

Terahertz Metasurfaces Research Progress and Applications

523

parameter optimization and full-wave simulation,

satisfying a specific phase distribution by adjusting

the size, shape, and arrangement gradient of the

elements. In addition, to address the high loss

challenge in the terahertz band, it is proposed to use a

low-loss dielectric substrate and optimize the

structural topology to improve efficiency. Song et al.

used bilayer graphene stacks to form chiral "helical"

or "Z-shaped" nanostructures, and by adjusting the

Fermi level and relaxation time of the graphene, they

were able to achieve dynamic control with higher

circular dichroism values (more than 25%) (Song et

al., 2024). Cheng et al. constructed metasurfaces

using metal open rectangular ring units to efficiently

control vortex electromagnetic waves in the terahertz

or microwave band, achieving phase modulation by

changing the structural size, with the highest mode

purity reaching 90% (Chen, 2023). These designs

emphasize the combination of parameter

optimization and full-wave simulation, and the future

trend is multi-functional integration and intelligent

dynamic control. Although current polarization

control devices have demonstrated excellent

bandwidth and functional integration performance,

there is still room for improvement in response speed,

control efficiency, and device integration, which

limits their widespread application in high-

performance terahertz systems.

2.3 Advances in Manufacturing

Technology

At present, large area nano-metasurface devices are

difficult to process and costly, and

Low-cost nano-fabrication technology has

become the focus of research.

Xu et al. This process has excellent performance

in terms of selectivity and etching rate, with less

undercutting and less damage to the material (Xu et

al., 2024). Moreover, it is a clean process with high

wafer etching volume, easy mask removal, and the

ability to produce three-dimensional complex

structures with high precision. Choi et al. 's silicon

and aluminum metasurfaces were fabricated using

NIL's nanolithography and 3D pattern transfer

capabilities, respectively, achieving nanoscale line

width uniformity, sub-200 nm translation coverage

accuracy, and <0.017 rotational alignment error,

while significantly reducing manufacturing

complexity and surface roughness (Choi et al., 2024).

This method is suitable for the scalable production of

large-area functional structures for ultra-compact

optical, electronic, and quantum devices.

Femtosecond laser micro-nano processing

technology, as a non-contact technique, has great

potential for application in the fabrication of flexible

electronic devices due to the combined advantages of

high peak power and low thermal effect of

femtosecond lasers, high processing accuracy, strong

controllability, high efficiency, and high integration

(Wang et al., 2024). Yin et al. proposed a three-

dimensional print-based ultra-sensitive terahertz

(THz) sensor composed of periodically arranged

strip-shaped metamaterials with a high sensitivity of

325 GHz/RIU, which can be produced through a

simple three-step manufacturing process and is

suitable for detecting a variety of analytes (Yin et al.,

2022). It demonstrates the advantages of 3D printing

in terms of process and design freedom to a certain

extent.

Emerging manufacturing technologies are

constantly innovating in response to existing

problems. Reactive ion etching, nanoimprint

technology, femtosecond laser micro-nano

processing, and 3D printing have improved the

manufacturing level of terahertz metasurface in

various aspects, while also noting that technology

migration can provide more possibilities for

development.

3 BREAKTHROUGHS IN

FUNCTIONAL REALIZATION

Based on the material and structural innovations

mentioned earlier, terahertz metasurfaces have made

a leap from "passive static" to "active reconfigurable"

in electromagnetic wave control capabilities. This

section will elaborate on its core breakthroughs in

wavefront control, polarization modulation, spectrum

control, and dynamic tunability, and show how these

functions are achieved through underlying design

innovations.

3.1 Wavefront Control

Phase control is the core of wavefront manipulation,

and metasurfaces achieve precise control over the

direction and mode of terahertz wave propagation

through geometric phase (PB phase) and gradient

phase design.

In the field of orbital angular momentum (OAM)

generation, the directivity controllable OAM vortex

beams generator designed by Li et al. uses

metasurface and helical phase plates to efficiently

generate high-order OAM modes in 0.1- 1 THz and

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supports dynamic direction adjustment (Li et al.,

2024). Xie et al.'s (2023) silicon-based vortex beam

chip enables the generation and control of circularly

polarized vortex waves (topological charge ±1)

through topological charge regulation. Since the

Bessel beam was proposed, it has received a lot of

attention due to its unique anti-diffraction and anti-

disturbance capabilities, and has become a hot topic

in the study of non-diffractive beams (Li et al., 2024).

Terahertz Bessel beams can also be generated through

metasurfaces. To meet the requirement of diffraction-

free transmission, Yu et al.'s (2023) double-conical

axial pyramid structure extended the diffraction-free

distance of terahertz Bessel beams to 110m, and Yang

et al.'s (2023) dispersive-regulated metasurfaces

enabled long-distance colimation transmission in the

0.3-1.0 THz band, solving the diffraction limitation

of traditional Gaussian beams. The focusing of

terahertz waves relies on lenses. Compared with

traditional optical lenses, planar metasurface lenses

are thinner and lighter in weight, which is conducive

to the miniaturization and integration of imaging

systems (Fu et al., 2020). Ma et al.'s (2022) all-

dielectric double-sided lens, which is only 500μm

thick, focuses 1THz waves to a wavelength-level spot,

increasing the electric field energy density by 44

times. Wang et al.'s (2021) graphene metasurface lens

enables reconfigurable switching focusing over a

wide frequency range with a focal length accuracy of

2.03mm (preset 2mm) and a spot half-peak width of

0.196mm, promoting the miniaturization of imaging

systems. Terahertz metasurfaces have also made a

breakthrough in holographic imaging. In 2022, Dong

et al. (2022) proposed a terahertz metasurface

composed of vanadium dioxide C-ring resonators and

pure gold C-ring resonators, which presents different

holograms at different temperatures. Zhang's (2023)

high-resistance silicon rectangular column structure,

which addresses the ohmic loss and low polarization

efficiency of metal metasurfaces, uses Mie resonance

and waveguide effects to achieve wavefront control

for transmission-based holography.

Metasurfaces have achieved breakthroughs in the

generation of OAM for terahertz waves, the

generation of Bessel beams, focusing, and

holographic imaging. By effectively controlling the

wavefront through various structural designs, they

have promoted the development of related

applications.

3.2 Polarization Modulation Class

Terahertz polarization is mainly divided into linear

polarization and circular polarization. Linear

polarization has the advantage of being direction-

sensitive and easy to control, while circular

polarization has the advantage of strong anti-

interference ability and uniform penetration. In recent

years, to meet the different application requirements

of various scenarios, the conversion between linear

polarization and circular polarization has been

necessary.

Tao's (2023) metal wire-grid-" Z "structure

metasurface achieved wire-circular and wire-linear

polarization converters in the 0.34-0.48 THz and

0.53-0.85 THz bands, respectively, for the first time,

integrating both functions into a single device. Chen

et al.'s (2025) liquid crystal birefringence modulator

enables dynamic programmable control of

linear/circular polarization in 1.6- 3.4 THz, breaking

through the narrowband limitations of traditional

devices. In contrast, linear polarization is suitable for

direction-sensitive scenarios, circular polarization is

better for anti-interference penetration, and

multifunctional integration meets the application

requirements in complex environments.

3.3 Spectrum Control

Spectrum control, which encompasses filtering and

absorption, is crucial for terahertz devices to achieve

signal filtering and energy management.

In terms of filter design, Wang et al. 'S multi-layer

S-shaped structure filter improves performance

through the superposition principle, with a

modulation depth of -62 dB, bandwidth extended to

1.24 THz, and Angle insensitivity (Wang, 2023). The

development of filters has evolved from single-stop

narrowband to wideband, multi-band, and adjustable

to meet the demand for wideband signal processing in

communication and sensing.

In the innovations of absorbers, narrowband

absorption (the perfect absorber) is a direction. Bai et

al. 's water-based graphene absorber achieves

temperature control/electric control dual tuning with

absorption rate > 99% at multiple frequency points

within 0-3.5THz (Bai, 2022). Li's (2023) "sandwich"

structure absorber achieved broadband absorption of

1.1THz at 1.33- 2.43THz (average 95.1%), and

improved sensitivity through temperature control

after replacing VO₂ (0.0194/K). The graphene /VO₂

metamaterial absorber designed by Guo & Dong

(2025) achieved an ultra-wideband of 6.35 THz (90%

absorption rate) and a modulation depth of 99% with

both polarization insensitivity and wide-angle

compatibility; In the field of wideband absorption.

Bindal et al. 's graphene fractal metasurface absorber

has an absorption rate of over 90% in 1.2- 4.6 THz,

Terahertz Metasurfaces Research Progress and Applications

525

supporting Fermi level tuning and wide-angle

incident (Bindal et al., 2025).

Spectrum control is constantly innovating in

filters and absorbers, evolving from narrowband to

wideband, adjustable, to meet the diverse

requirements of terahertz devices for signal filtering

and energy management.

3.4 Dynamic Tunable Function

Dynamic control is at the core of achieving smart

devices, and current research is focused on multi-

physical field excitation methods such as electric

control and photothermal control.

In the direction of electronic control tuning, Wang

et al. (2023) proposed that dynamic tunable

metasurfaces, through a multi-physics field

regulation mechanism, break through the static

limitations of traditional devices and demonstrate

transformative potential in fields such as imaging,

communication, and sensing. Zhang et al. (2025)

proposed the design of L-shaped terahertz

metasurface based on Dirac semimetal (DSM),

achieving dynamic optical tuning through the

electronically controlled Fermi level (0-0.3eV), with

a reflectance adjustable range of 80% within the 1.2-

2.8THz range and high sensitivity sensing

characteristics (0.075THz/RIU). Wan et al. (2025)

designed a graphene-based five-peak terahertz

metamaterial absorber, which achieved dynamic

tuning (absorption rate 70%-99%) by adjusting the

graphene Fermi level (0-0.8eV) and enhanced sensing

sensitivity (0.032THz/RIU) with five resonant peaks

(1.2/2.1/3.0/3.8/4.5THz). This absorber is thus

suitable for high-precision terahertz sensing detection.

In the direction of photothermal tuning, Dong

(2023) Designed dynamic tunable terahertz

metasurface based on photothermal phase change

materials (silicon/indium antimonide /VO₂),

achieving polarization conversion (efficiency 97%),

absorption (>90%), and wavefront shaping (vortex

light/hyperlens) function switching through

light/thermal regulation, achieving full-space optical

switching effect within the range of 0.6-1.15THz. It

provides new ideas for the development of

multifunctional tunable terahertz devices.

The dynamic tunable function, achieved through

electronic control, photothermal control, etc.,

provides a direction for the development of terahertz

smart devices and shows great application potential in

multiple fields.

4 CONCLUSIONS

This paper summarizes the key progress of terahertz

metasurfaces in core design and functional realization.

In terms of materials, traditional static materials can

achieve efficient terahertz wave modulation through

optimized design, while dynamic tunable materials

(such as graphene, liquid crystals, phase change

materials) have become a key development direction

for the present and future due to their real-time

regulation capabilities and multi-functional

integration characteristics. In terms of structural

design, the bandwidth limitations of terahertz devices

have been effectively broken through by multi-

resonant coupling mechanisms, gradient phase

distribution, multilayer stacking, and spatial

multiplexing strategies, achieving wideband/multi-

band response characteristics. In terms of processing

technology, electron beam lithography combined

with reactive ion etching can produce three-

dimensional complex structures with high precision,

nanoimprint technology significantly reduces the cost

of mass production, and femtosecond laser direct

writing expands the processing capability of non-

planar substrates. 3D printing and additive

manufacturing technologies, through rapid

prototyping, not only shorten the R&D cycle but also

promote the application of metasurfaces in emerging

fields such as flexible devices and biosensing. It

enables dynamic tunable metasurface technology to

achieve real-time tuning and multi-functional

switching based on optical, electrical and thermal

excitation. The speed of dynamic adjustment of

amplitude, phase and polarization mode has broken

through the microsecond level. These breakthroughs

provide key technical support for applications such as

terahertz wavefront control, imaging communication,

and intelligent perception, and will continue to move

towards dynamic reconfigurability, intelligence, and

multi-functional integration in the future.

It should also be noted that there are bottlenecks

in the current development of terahertz metasurfaces,

such as manufacturing accuracy and cost issues. How

to strike a balance between the two requires further

development of low-cost manufacturing processes,

dynamic control response speed and stability, and the

power consumption of existing dynamic

metasurfaces still needs to be optimized. Also, how to

achieve seamless integration of metasurfaces into

existing terahertz systems remains to be broken

through. It is also necessary to better translate the

research results into application fields. Such as 6G

communication, security imaging and non-

destructive testing, biomedical sensing. Future

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526

directions include: developing intelligent

metasurfaces with multi-physics field collaborative

control by combining artificial intelligence with

reverse design methods; Exploring new functional

material systems such as two-dimensional and

supramolecular materials; Developing reconfigurable

metasurfaces and adaptive control technologies, and

promote the in-depth application of terahertz

technology in communication, sensing, imaging and

other fields.

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