Developments in the Study of Perovskite Light-Emitting Diode

Instability

Zili Chen

School of Physics and Electronic Engineering, Hengyang Normal University, Hengyang, Hunan, 421010, China

Keywords: Perovskite, Instability, Ionic Migration, Phase Separation.

Abstract: Perovskite light-emitting diodes (PeLEDs) exhibited significant potential for application in advanced

display technologies and solid state lighting (SSL), owing to their superior photoelectric performance.

However, compared with conventional LED technologies, the instability and disparities across various

aspects of PeLEDs have emerged as the primary bottleneck hindering their industrialization. This paper

systematically reviews the study of PeLEDs' instability and elucidates that the self-reinforcing feedback

cycle between ion migration and phase separation constitutes a critical mechanism underlying device

performance degradation. To enhance stability, this work discusses material innovation-based strategies

such as ion doping, ligand engineering, and dimensional regulation for component optimization.

Additionally, structural improvement approaches, including voltage reduction, insertion layers, and thermal

management, are analyzed from the perspective of device engineering. By underscoring the significance and

urgency of PeLED instability research, this paper aims to provide concrete insights and methodologies to

overcome the stability bottleneck of PeLED devices and expedite the practical implementation of

high-stability PeLEDs.

https://orcid.org/0009-0002-7624-2789

1 INTRODUCTION

In recent years, perovskite materials have emerged

as promising candidates for advanced display

technologies and next-generation lighting systems,

owing to the outstanding photovoltaic attributes,

including ultra-high light absorbance, balanced

charge carrier transport capabilities, adjustable

energy band structures and simple preparation

process (Fakharuddin et al., 2022; Han et al., 2022).

In terms of photovoltaic efficiency, perovskite

light-emitting diodes (PeLEDs) have achieved parity

with conventional LEDs, and in some aspects, even

surpassed them. Currently, the external quantum

efficiency (EQE) of the most advanced

monochromatic PeLEDs reached 28.7% (at 638 nm),

30.8% (at ~530 nm), and 26.4% (at 480 nm),

respectively (Kong et al., 2024; Bai et al., 2024);

However, in terms of stability, PeLEDs still have a

significant gap compared to traditional LEDs.

Commercially available LEDs need to meet a

minimum lifespan requirement of at least 10,000

hours to balance their environmental impact (Zhang

et al., 2025). Currently, the recorded lifetimes of red,

green, and blue PeLEDs are 48,000 hours (T95 at

1,000 cd/m2), 12,500 hours (T50 at 100 cd/m2), and

12 hours (T50 at 102 cd/m2), respectively (Yan et

al., 2023; Chen et al., 2023; The insufficiency and

disparity in stability, especially the obvious lag in

the development of blue PeLEDs, have become the

key bottleneck restricting the commercialization

process of PeLEDs (Bi et al., 2021).

This paper reviews the research on the instability

of PeLEDs, summarizes the instability mechanism of

the self-reinforcing feedback cycle of ion migration

and phase separation, and lists various solutions in

the dimensions of material innovation and device

engineering to overcome stability limitations, hoping

to accelerate the practical application process.

516

Chen, Z.

Developments in the Study of Perovskite Light-Emitting Diode Instability.

DOI: 10.5220/0013828600004708

Paper published under CC license (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0)

In Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on Innovations in Applied Mathematics, Physics, and Astronomy (IAMPA 2025), pages 516-521

ISBN: 978-989-758-774-0

2 INSTABILITY MECHANISM OF

PELEDS

Figure 1: a) Perovskite crystal structure; b) Perovskite energy band structure; c) Instability mechanism and its optimization

strategy.

2.1 Perovskite Luminescent Materials

Perovskite materials are defined as metal halides

with an ABX3 crystal structure (Figure 1a). The

ideal perovskite crystal consists of corner-sharing

[BX6] 4-octahedra, forming an isometric system.

Here, A mainly denotes alkali metal cations or

smaller organics (Cs+, CH3NH3+, etc.), B

symbolizes mainly divalent metal cations (lead ion,

tin ion), and X represents a halide ion. Taking the

band structure of lead halide perovskites (Figure 1b)

as an example, the valence band (VB) structure

primarily arises from antibonding hybrid orbitals

formed by the interaction between X anion np

orbitals and Pb cation 6s orbitals, with the np

orbitals of halide/pseudohalide (X) components

providing the dominant contribution to the orbital

composition. The conduction band (CB) structure

originates from the hybridized interaction between

the 6p orbitals of Pb cations and the np orbitals of X

anions, with the 6p orbitals of Pb ions being

dominant. Although cations do not directly

contribute to the formation of frontier orbitals, their

differences in ionic radius can indirectly affect the

band gap width and band dispersion relationship

through lattice distortion effects (Akkerman et al.,

2018).

The unique molecular composition and band

structure of perovskites endow them with an

outstanding defect tolerance mechanism. Unlike

deep-level defects in traditional semiconductors that

significantly deteriorate carrier transport properties,

intrinsic defects in perovskites (such as vacancies

and interstitial atoms) are mostly shallow-level states

with minor impacts due to the contributions of Pb

atom's s and p orbitals (Akkerman et al., 2018).

Further, their low formation energy characteristics

cause defects to preferentially distribute in the band

edge regions near the VB top and CB bottom rather

than within the semiconductor's forbidden energy

region, thus having little effect on carrier relaxation

and recombination processes (Kovalenko et al.,

2017). This unique defect distribution pattern

effectively suppresses non-radiative recombination

channels, endowing the material with extremely high

fluorescence quantum yields (introducing TOP-PbI2

can increase the PLQY to nearly 100%), an

ultra-broad color range (close to 1.4 times the NTSC

specification), and ultra-pure color emission

characteristics (Liu et al., 2018). Combined with the

quantum confinement effect, perovskite materials

exhibit performance boundaries that surpass

traditional luminescent materials, making them

strong contenders for next-generation optoelectronic

materials and widely used in lasers, light-emitting

diodes, and next-generation displays and other

luminescent fields.

2.2 Ion Migration

The unique three-dimensional corner-sharing

[BX6]4 octahedra structure of perovskite materials,

which endows them with excellent defect tolerance,

Developments in the Study of Perovskite Light-Emitting Diode Instability

517

also constitutes a conduction path for ion migration

(mainly the migration of A and X cations).

Compared with perovskite devices, PeLEDs have

more severe ion migration phenomena. On the one

hand, the fabrication of PeLEDs usually requires the

introduction of excessive organic halide salts, where

the free halide ions (X-) and organic cations

(MA+/FA+) that do not participate in lattice

coordination form an overly concentrated ion

reservoir at the grain boundaries and surface,

providing a material basis for ion migration (Jia et

al., 2021). On the other hand, the perovskite active

layer in PeLEDs is typically only tens of nanometers

thick and needs to withstand a high voltage of >3V,

resulting in a more pronounced local Joule heating

effect (Lianfeng et al., 2017).

Such a high ion migration rate will lead to the

aggregation of vacancy defects at perovskite

interfaces, causing crystal structure distortion (Kim

et al., 2020). Lattice deformation leads to the

appearance of deep-level defect states and

non-radiative recombination centers in the device,

ultimately reducing the radiative efficiency of the

perovskite emission layer. More specifically, as

PeLED devices operate, the external electric field

will induce charged ions to cross the interface and

enter the charge transport layer (ETL), affecting the

conductivity of ETL and causing current-voltage

hysteresis. Even some Br- and CN- (MA+) ions will

form migration paths with a diameter of 25 μm, i.e.,

black spots in the device (Lee et al., 2019). Yuan et

al. (2016) pointed out that the external electric field

will also promote electrochemical reactions in

perovskite materials, accelerating the decomposition

of perovskite materials and generating gaseous

products such as AX2 and X or organic substances.

Yuan's experiments found that as the applied electric

field increased 1 V μm¹, the distance traveled by the

gas generation path over 100 μm decreased from

about 250 s to about 168 s, and the path width

further expanded. Liu et al. (2021) also noted that

the temperature rise during device operation will

lower the migration barrier, activate ion vibrations,

form defect clusters, and cause material emission

thermal quenching (enhanced electron-phonon

interaction, making it easier for exciton energy to be

dissipated through phonon scattering).

The excessive ion migration rate caused by the

preparation and luminescence of perovskite

luminescent materials leads to lattice distortion and

material decomposition, thereby reducing stability.

This is the core principle of its instability.

2.3 Phase Separation and

Environmental Impact

The microscopic kinetic origin of phase separation

phenomena is constituted by ion migration, which is

essentially a non-equilibrium transport process of

carriers at lattice defects. When the local ion

concentration exceeds the thermodynamic stability

threshold, it triggers the phase separation behavior of

the material system, forming a multi-phase

coexistence structure with different lattice constants,

bandgap energy levels, and electrical conductivity

characteristics. Wang et al. (2023) pointed out that

this non-uniform phase distribution would lead to the

interruption of carrier transport paths, specifically

manifested as a decrease in carrier mobility and a

significant quenching effect of recombination

luminescence. Baek et al. (2024) found that lattice

distortion fields are generated at the multi-phase

interfaces, inducing the initiation and propagation of

microcracks. This structural defect is significantly

enhanced by the synergy of the environment. For

instance, after heating, the film shows enlarged

grains (~50%) and cracks at the grain boundaries,

which are attributed to the displacement of A-site

cations, and this displacement is caused by the

breaking of chemical bonds under thermal effects

(Niu et al., 2017). Water and oxygen also

significantly affect PeLEDs. In a high water and

oxygen environment, water molecules are easily

adsorbed at the perovskite grain boundaries and

undergo hydrolysis reactions with organic cations

(such as MA+), leading to the decomposition of the

perovskite structure. Meanwhile, oxygen undergoes

oxidation reactions with halogen ions, generating

halogen vapor (such as I2), further exacerbating the

destruction of the lattice structure and the

deterioration of the device morphology (Yuan et al.,

2016). Xiao et al. (2017) found that after light

exposure, the Fermi level in the perovskite gap

increased by 0.3 eV, and the PL peak also showed a

slight shift, reflecting that phase separation can also

be induced by light or applied bias, and further

affecting the stability of various properties.

The above multi-scale analysis indicates that the

core instability mechanism of PeLEDs is the

self-reinforcing feedback cycle of ion migration and

phase separation. Therefore, balancing the activity

and stability of ion migration and suppressing phase

separation caused by the device electric field and the

external environment are the two key research

directions to improve the instability of PeLEDs

(Figure 1c).

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518

3 STRATEGIES FOR

IMPROVING PELEDS’

INSTABILITY

Table 1: Six Common Strategies to Improve the Instability of PeLEDs

[h] EQE[%] Strategy Ref.

5 at 3 mA/cm

5.10% Metal Doping

Gangishetty et al.,

2019

60 at 10 mA/cm

15.84% Metal Doping Li et al., 2020

12 at 102 cd/

4.70% Additive Engineering Bi et al., 2021

1340 at 100 cd/m

25.60% Additive Engineering Xu et al., 2025

100 at 25 mA/cm

5.20% Quasi-2D Shan

et al., 2019

7691.1 at 100 cd/m

27.80% Low volta

e Zhen

et al., 2024

*648,500 at 1,000 cd/m

23.00% Low volta

e Yan et al., 2023

1774 at 20 mA/cm

22.70% Insertion laye

Yi et al., 2024

4806.7 at 100 cd/m

21.20% Thermal managemen

Ye et al., 2021

*By extrapolation through an exponential model

3.1 Material Composition Engineering

By investigating the most advanced methods for

improving the stability of PeLEDs, it lists their

corresponding half-lives (T50) and external quantum

efficiencies (EQE), and summarize six common

stability improvement strategies (Table 1). Material

composition engineering is one of the core strategies

for enhancing the stability of PeLEDs, focusing on

defect passivation and lattice stiffening through

chemical composition optimization and crystal

structure regulation, thereby effectively suppressing

ion migration and slowing down the phase

separation process.

In the field of ion doping, researchers have

increased the migration activation energy of halide

ions by introducing heteroatoms, obtaining stable

perovskite crystal structures. Gangishetty et al.

(2019) partially replaced Pb2+ at the B site with

Mn2+ to obtain the multi-doped structure. The

devices showed a 5-hour brightness half-life (T50)

and excellent spectral stability, verifying the effect

of ion doping. Further, Li et al. (2020) revealed the

synergistic stabilization mechanism of alkali metal:

Cs+ uniformly distributed in the bulk enhanced

Coulomb interaction between cations and the

inorganic framework, while Rb+ preferentially

enriched at the grain boundaries and surface to

passivate defects. This dual-ion regulation extended

the device's half-life to 60 hours, highlighting the

significant contribution of multi-ion cooperative

engineering to structural stability.

In the field of ligand engineering, Bi et al. (2021)

developed a hydrogen bromide (HBr) etching

process, which was proven to remove most surface

defects and excessive carboxylate ligands from the

[PbBr6]4− octahedra. The pure blue PeLEDs

fabricated by this process had a T50 of over 12 hours

under continuous operation, setting a new record for

blue device stability. Xu et al. (2025) employed a

multisite cross-linking ligand approach to suppress

halide ion migration in CsPbBr3 QD films, which

could also effectively passivate and stabilize the

perovskite surface. This strategy increased the

device T50 to 1340 hours, more than six times

longer than traditional structures.

In the field of dimensionality control, 3D

perovskite structures were strategically modified by

substituting A cations with larger counterparts to

have quasi-2D geometries. Processed devices have

mixed phases that can achieve strong quantum

confinement. Shang et al. (2019) used a bidentate

organic molecule, BAB, as a bridging molecule to

fabricate PeLEDs, building upon the DJ framework,

with a T50 operational lifespan of 100 hours, which

is two orders of magnitude longer than that of the 3D

structure. Such quasi-2D structures balance the

requirements of carrier transport and structural

stability through the coexistence of mixed phases,

providing a new paradigm for the component design

of high-performance PeLEDs.

3.2 Device Structure Design

Device structure design is another key direction for

enhancing the stability of PeLEDs. It focuses on

optimizing the interfaces and energy level matching

between device layers to block ion migration paths

and suppress the phase separation caused by the

Developments in the Study of Perovskite Light-Emitting Diode Instability

519

coupling effect of the electric field and the

environment. It achieves a breakthrough in

long-term device stability by constructing

multi-dimensional barriers.

In terms of reducing voltage, Zheng et al. (2024)

successfully achieved a record-low 1.7 V turn-on

voltage in green PeLEDs via upgrading the emitter

and charge transfer layers, significantly increasing

the lifespan (T50 at 100 cd/m2) to 7,691.1 hours.

This study demonstrated that lowering the turn-on

voltage beneath the bandgap minimizes Joule

heating, solves stability issues, extends the

fluorescent lifetime. Yan et al. (2023) also achieved

minimal heating effect in PeLEDs through lowering

the driving voltage, achieving a high EQE of 23% at

1,000 cd/m2 and a T95 operational lifespan of over

48,000 hours.

Regarding the insertion layer, Yi et al. (2024)

proposed a spatial barrier strategy for the hole

transport layer (HTLs). Via lowering perovskite

wettability, it effectively prevents the upper HTL

from penetrating into the perovskite grain

boundaries, thereby suppressing ion migration.

Experimental data show that the device maintains a

T50 of 256 hours at a high current density of 100

mA/cm² and extends the half-life to 1,774 hours at a

low current density of 20 mA/cm². This structural

innovation provides a new approach for improving

the stability of high-brightness devices through the

synergistic effect of physical isolation and chemical

passivation.

In terms of thermal management, Ye et al. (2021)

developed a collaborative device architecture that

combines a Specially designed CsPbIxBr3-x

perovskite bulk to minimize heating effect and

enhance heat transfer of the device. This architecture

achieved a working half-life of 4,806.7 hours at 100

cd/m2. Such an architecture opens up a new path for

thermal stability management in high-performance

PeLEDs through material-structure collaborative

design.

4 CONCLUSION

This article reviews the research progress on the

stability of PeLEDs, emphasizing the critical

constraint that stability issues pose to their

commercialization process. It delves into the core

mechanism of PeLEDs' stability, highlighting the

dominant role of the self-reinforcing feedback cycle

between ion migration and phase separation in the

degradation of device performance. To enhance

stability, the article explores two major strategies:

material composition engineering and device

structure design. Although the lifespan of some

laboratory devices has reached the minimum

commercial standard for LEDs, the stability of

full-color red, green, and blue displays remains

uneven, with blue devices lagging significantly in

efficiency and lifespan. Moreover, the lack of a

unified standard for device stability testing

(inconsistent initial conditions, units, and bases, and

unknown testing environments) leads to poor data

comparability, hindering technological iteration.

Looking ahead, the stability research of PeLEDs

needs to deepen the collaborative innovation of

material gene design and device integration. On one

hand, by integrating high-throughput computing and

machine learning technologies, the screening and

optimization process of stable perovskite materials

can be accelerated. On the other hand, real-time

monitoring of ion migration/phase separation via

in-situ techniques is essential for understanding and

controlling failure mechanisms. Ultimately, through

the cross-disciplinary integration of multiple fields,

PeLEDs can be advanced towards high stability and

long lifespan for photonic applications, unlocking

their transformative potential in Environmentally

friendly lighting and flexible displays.

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