Analysis of the State-of-Art Dark Matter Candidate Searching:

Evidence from WIMPs and Axions

Runshen Jian

Beijing No.80 high school, Beijing, China

Keywords: Axions, Wimps, XENONnT, MOND.

Abstract: Dark matter (DM) constitutes approximately 85% of the total matter in the universe. Its detection remains one

of the most significant challenges in modern astrophysics and particle physics. This research provides an

overall summary of the latest state of dark matter detection, focusing on both direct and indirect methods.

This study summarizes the progress made in direct detection experiments (e.g., XENONnT and LUX-

ZEPLIN), which have significantly constrained the space of Weakly Interacting Massive Particles through

increased detector sensitivity. Indirect detection methods, including gamma-ray and cosmic-ray observations,

have also refined the understanding of dark matter interactions. Additionally, one explores innovative

approaches like the use of infrared spectroscopy and enhanced axion detection techniques, which offer new

pathways for more sensitive and efficient detection. The findings highlight the ongoing advancements in

experimental technologies and mathematical models which establish the limit of both the dark matter

detection and research. DM is important for figuring out the universe's composition, gravity, and the particles

that govern cosmic structure, making this research of profound significance in both astrophysics and

fundamental physics.

1 INTRODUCTION

The research on dark matter has been a cornerstone of

modern astrophysics since its initial proposal in the

early 20th century. The first empirical evidence for

DM came from observations of galaxy clusters,

notably by Zwicky, who found that the gravitational

potential of the Coma Cluster was far greater than

what could be seen by the eyes along. This

discrepancy suggested the existence of non-luminous

"dark matter" (Zwicky 1937). Subsequent studies

(e.g., Rubin & Ford, 1970), further supported this idea

by revealing that the rotation curves of galaxies like

M31 (Andromeda) did not decline as expected,

indicating the presence of unseen mass. These

observations challenged the Newtonian

understanding of gravity and led to the development

of alternative theories, including Modified

Newtonian Dynamics (MOND) and the DM related

hypothesis.

The significance of dark matter research lies in its

profound implications for cosmology and particle

physics. Dark matter is believed to constitute

approximately 85% of the total matter in the universe,

influencing the formation and evolution of cosmic

structures. Direct evidence for dark matter was

provided (Clowe, et al., 2006), who observed the

Bullet Cluster (1E 0657-558) and demonstrated a

spatial separation between the baryonic matter (X-ray

emitting plasma) and the gravitational potential,

which traced the distribution of dark matter. This

observation provided compelling evidence that dark

matter is not merely a modification of gravity but a

distinct, non-baryonic component in the cosmic.

Understanding DM is important for solving the

problems related to the universe's composition, the

nature of gravity, and the fundamental particles that

make up the cosmos. It bridges the gap between

astrophysical observations and particle physics,

offering insights into the cosmic structure and the

fundamental laws governing it.

In recent years, the quest for understanding dark

matter has intensified, with significant advancements

in both theoretical models and experimental

techniques. Observations across various scales, from

galaxy rotation curves to cosmic microwave, have

provided the evidence for the existence of DM, which

constitutes most part of the universe (Huang, 2019).

However, the DM remains elusive, driving scientists

Jian, R.

Analysis of the State-of-Art Dark Matter Candidate Searching: Evidence from WIMPs and Axions.

DOI: 10.5220/0013824200004708

Paper published under CC license (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0)

In Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on Innovations in Applied Mathematics, Physics, and Astronomy (IAMPA 2025), pages 281-285

ISBN: 978-989-758-774-0

281

to do experiment on various candidate particles and

detection methods.

One prominent candidate is the WIMP, which has

been the focus of numerous direct detection

experiments. These efforts have significantly

constrained the parameter space of WIMPs, with

exclusion limits approaching the neutrino floor (Liu,

Yang & Yue, 2019). This has spurred interest in

alternative light DM candidates, such as axions, dark

photons, and fermionic DM. Experiments like CDEX

in China have made notable contributions to probing

these lighter candidates, utilizing low-threshold, low-

background detectors to set stringent limits on their

properties (ATLAS Collaboration, 2019).

Indirect detection methods, which rely on

identifying signals that deviate from expected

astrophysical backgrounds, have also seen substantial

progress. These methods include searching for

gamma-ray and cosmic-ray signals that could show

the dark matter decay. Recent studies have explored

potential signals from various dark matter candidates,

including WIMPs and axion-like particles, using data

from gamma-ray telescopes and cosmic-ray detectors

(ATLAS Collaboration, 2019). While definitive

detections remain elusive, these efforts continue to

broaden the known part of dark matter's possible

interactions and properties.

As experimental techniques continue to advance

and new observatories come online, the prospects for

uncovering the nature of dark matter are more

promising than ever. The combination of direct and

indirect detection methods, along with theoretical

advancements, is expected to bring us closer to the

truth of the mysteries

2 DESCRIPTIONS

Dark matter is a form of matter that does not interact

with electromagnetic radiation, making it invisible to

conventional detection methods. Its existence was

first proposed by Oort and Zwicky to explain the

observed discrepancies between the volume of galaxy

clusters affected from fluctuations and the volume

accounted for by matter (Kapteyn 1922; Zwicky

1933). Further evidence for DM is derived from the

study of GRC, which showed that stars at the edges

of galaxies were moving much faster if only visible

matter was providing the gravitational force (Rubin,

et al., 1980). The GL effect, where the path of light is

affected by large objects, also provided valid

justification of the existence of DM, as the bending

was greater than could be accounted for by visible

mass alone (Roberts & Rots, 1973).

Research into dark matter has advanced

significantly in recent decades. Theoretical models

suggest that the DM could be composed of WIMPs,

which are hypothetical particles that interact weakly

with ordinary matter (Bi, et al., 2018). Experiments

such as the XENON project have been at the direct

detection efforts, using lx detectors to explore the

relationships between dark matter particles and

atomic nuclei (Liu, et al., 2025). These experiments

have set stringent limits on the interaction cross-

sections of dark matter particles. Indirect detection

methods include searching for the products of DM

decay in cosmic rays, with experiments like AMS-02

and Fermi-LAT providing important constraints on

dark matter properties (Bi, et al., 2018).

DM research can be broadly classified into two

categories: direct-detection and indirect-detection.

Direct detection aims to observe the scattering of DM

particles in highly sensitive detectors placed secretly

underground to protected against dangerous rays

from the universe. Indirect detection, on the other

hand, involves detecting the secondary particles

produced by DM decay in cosmic rays, gamma rays,

or neutrinos. Both approaches are crucial for

understanding the nature of DM and its role in the

universe.

3 DETECTIONS OF WIMPS

WIMPs have long been considered a promising

candidate for DM. As stated in the paper “The

Phenomenology of WIMP Dark Matter Model” by

Tang, “WIMPs are the prominent candidates for dark

matter” because they are theorized to interact with

ordinary matter primarily through the weak force and

gravity, making them elusive yet potentially

detectable through their weak interactions (Tang &

Zhang, 2024). These particles are expected to have

masses in the interval of a few GeV to several TeV,

offering a plausible explanation for the gravitational

effects due to dark matter. The detection of WIMPs

relies on three primary methods: direct detection,

indirect detection, and collider experiments. Direct

detection experiments aim to observe the rare

interactions of WIMPs with atomic nuclei in highly

sensitive detectors placed deep underground to shield

against cosmic rays and other background radiation.

These detectors typically use materials like liquid

xenon or germanium, which can produce detectable

signals when struck by a WIMP. For instance, the

PandaX-II experiment, a leading direct detection

effort, utilizes a two-phase liquid xenon time

projection chamber (TPC) to search for WIMP

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interactions with xenon nuclei. As mentioned in the

paper "Research Progress on DM Model Based on

WIMP " by He and Lin (He & Lin, 2016), “Currently,

many direct and indirect detections of dark matter

based on accelerators or non-accelerators are

designed for WIMP particles,” indicating the

significant role of WIMPs in current experimental

designs. Indirect detection, on other prospects,

involves searching for the products of WIMPs

annihilation in cosmic rays or neutrinos. This method

relies on the observation of excesses in these particles

that cannot be explained by standard astrophysical

processes alone. CE, such as the experiment done by

LHC, attempt to produce WIMPs by smashing high-

energy particles together and observing the resulting

debris for signs of dark matter. Recent years have

seen significant advancements in the explorations of

WIMPs. Direct detection experiments like

XENONnT or LUX-ZEPLIN (LZ) have pushed the

sensitivity limits to unprecedented levels, probing

deeper into the possible mass and interaction cross-

sections of WIMPs. These experiments have not yet

detected a definitive WIMP signal but have provided

stringent constraints on the parameter space, ruling

out many previously viable scenarios. The PandaX-II

experiment, for example, has published outcomes

from 54 ton-day exposure, setting new upper limits

on the s-d WIMP-nucleon cross-sections. Indirect

detection has also made strides, with observatories

like the Fermi-LAT providing detailed maps of γ-ray

emissions from the galactic centre and other regions,

searching for the telltale signatures of WIMP

annihilation. While no conclusive evidence has been

found, these observations have helped refine the

understanding of potential dark matter behaviour and

interactions. Despite the lack of a confirmed detection,

the quest for WIMPs continues with renewed Vigor.

Theoretical models, such as the Inert Doublet Model

and the NMSSM, are being explored to provide new

insights and predictions for WIMP properties. These

models suggest that WIMPs could have masses and

interaction strengths that are just beyond the current

detection thresholds, offering hope for future

discoveries. The ongoing and planned experiments,

combined with the development of new mathematical

frameworks, ensure the search for WIMPs remains a

vibrant and active area of research, holding the

answer of the mysteries

4 DETECTIONS OF AXIONS

Axions, hypothetical particles proposed to solve the

strong CP problem in quantum chromodynamics,

have garnered significant interest as potential

candidates for DM (Zhao & Wei, 2023). Despite

extensive experimental efforts, axions have yet to be

detected. Traditional detection methods, such as the

ADMX experiment (Asztalos, et al., 2001), rely on

the change in axions will result to photons in a strong

magnetic field, a process known as the Sikivie effect

(Sikivie, 1990). However, the expected power of

these electromagnetic response signals is extremely

weak, typically in the order of 10

to 10−

making detection challenging and requiring long

signal accumulation times. Recent advancements in

detection techniques have explored the use of

alternating magnetic fields to enhance the

electromagnetic response of axions. By

superimposing an alternating magnetic field on a

steady-state strong magnetic field, the

electromagnetic response signal of axions can be

significantly amplified. This approach has the

potential to increase the signal strength by several

orders of magnitude, making it more feasible to detect

axions with microelectronvolt masses. For instance,

in a one-dimensional model, the introduction of an

alternating magnetic field has been shown to amplify

the axion electromagnetic response signal by 5-6

orders of magnitude compared to the steady-state case.

This enhancement could significantly reduce the time

required for signal detection and improve the

sensitivity of axion search experiments. Another

promising avenue for axion detection involves the use

of atomic magnetometers and comagnetometers.

These instruments, capable of measuring extremely

weak magnetic fields, have been employed to search

for axion-like dark matter and to explore anomalous

spin-dependent forces (Zhang, et al., 2023). Atomic

magnetometers can detect the interaction between

axions and atomic spins, which can induce a

precession of the spins. This precession can be

measured with high precision, offering a sensitive

probe for axion detection (Zhang, et al., 2023). For

example, the CASPEr experiment proposes to use

nuclear magnetic resonance techniques to detect the

spin precession caused by axion-like dark matter

(Zhang, et al., 2023). This method has the potential to

provide stringent constraints on the coupling between

axions and standard model fermions over a broad

mass range. In summary, the detection of axions

remains a challenging but crucial endeavour in both

particle physics and cosmology. Innovative

approaches, such as the use of alternating magnetic

fields and atomic magnetometers, are opening new

pathways for more sensitive and efficient axion

detection. These developments improve the progress

of solving the nature of DM.

Analysis of the State-of-Art Dark Matter Candidate Searching: Evidence from WIMPs and Axions

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5 LIMITATIONS AND

PROSPECTS

Direct experiments hope to see the scattering of DM,

such as WIMP, off atomic nuclei in large

underground detectors. However, these experiments

face several limitations. One major challenge is the

extremely low interaction rate of dark matter particles,

which results in a very small number of detectable

events. Additionally, background noise from cosmic

rays and radioactive materials can interfere with the

detection process, making it difficult to distinguish

genuine DM signals. For instance, even with

advanced techniques to minimize background

interference, the probability of statistical fluctuations

leading to biased or uncertain results remains a

concern. Indirect detection methods, which involve

searching for the by-products of DM annihilations or

decays in cosmic objects, also have their limitations.

These methods require a variety of detectors, such as

gamma-ray telescopes and neutrino detectors, each

with its own set of challenges. For example, the

interpretation of signals from these detectors can be

complicated by astrophysical uncertainties and the

need for accurate modelling of the dark matter

distribution and interaction processes. Despite these

challenges, the future of DM detection holds promise.

Advances in technology are enabling the construction

of larger and more sensitive detectors, which will

increase the chances of detecting dark matter particles.

For instance, next-generation direct detection

experiments, such as the XENON1T and DARWIN

projects, aim to achieve much lower detection

thresholds and higher sensitivity. These experiments

will also benefit from the combination of data from

different types of detectors, which can help reduce

statistical uncertainties and improve the accuracy of

parameter reconstruction. In addition to technological

advancements, new approaches are being explored.

For example, a recent study demonstrated the

potential of using infrared spectroscopy to search for

dark matter by analysing light from ancient galaxies.

This innovative method effectively turns the universe

into a giant dark matter detector, offering a

complementary approach to traditional particle-based

detection. While this study did not detect dark matter

directly, it set stringent limits on the properties of

certain DM candidates, such as ALPs, thereby

broaden the known fields of DM.

6 CONCLUSIONS

In summary, the detection of DM remains a

formidable yet crucial challenge in modern physics.

the comprehensive review of current detection

methods has highlighted significant progress,

particularly in the areas of direct and indirect

detection. Direct detection experiments, such as

XENONnT and LUX-ZEPLIN, have achieved

unprecedented sensitivity, setting stringent limits on

the interaction cross-sections of dark matter particles

like WIMPs. Indirect detection methods, including

gamma-ray and cosmic-ray observations, have also

provided valuable constraints on dark matter

properties. Additionally, innovative approaches like

the use of infrared spectroscopy and enhanced axion

detection techniques have shown promise in

expanding the search capabilities. Looking ahead, the

ongoing advancements in experimental technologies

and theoretical models offer hope for future

breakthroughs in dark matter detection. This research

offers the ability to unravel one of the most profound

unknowns of the universe

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