Wearable System for Measuring Impact Force and Response Time in

Taekwondo Using Piezoresistive Sensors

ıas Nicol

as Chato-Cantos

1 a

, Juan Jos

e Rivera-Zamora

1 b

, Ana Cecilia Villa-Parra

1 c

Pablo Cevallos-Larrea

1 d

and Mario Alvarez-Alvarez

2 e

Biomedical Engineering Research Group, Universidad Polit

ecnica Salesiana, Calle Vieja 12-30, Cuenca, Ecuador

Physical Activity and Sports Sciences Research Group, Universidad Polit

ecnica Salesiana, Calle Vieja 12-30, Cuenca,

Ecuador

Keywords:

Impact Force, Piezoresistive Sensors, Response Time, Taekwondo, Wearable Devices.

Abstract:

This paper presents the design and preliminary validation of a wearable prototype integrated into a Taekwondo

chest protector. The system combines piezoresistive force sensors and visual LED stimuli to measure two crit-

ical performance parameters: impact force and response time. Unlike traditional measurement systems that

are limited to laboratory settings, the proposed device enables real-time assessment in realistic training envi-

ronments. The sensors were calibrated using a progressive load method, and a linear model without intercept

was selected to ensure proportional accuracy. Six athletes participated in the experimental protocol, execut-

ing the Bandal Chagui technique under sequential and random visual conditions. Results showed a decrease

in impact force and an increase in response time under the random condition, suggesting that cognitive load

affects technical performance. The system proved to be portable, low-cost, and suitable for integration into

regular training routines.

1 INTRODUCTION

The application of wearables in sports is a promising

area and presenting substantial advantages in perfor-

mance analysis and injury prediction (Sec¸kin et al.,

2023). Wearable technology has the potential to revo-

lutionize sports and exercise science thanks to its abil-

ity to transmit numerous types of data in real time to

support training processes, and can also be applied

to assess well-being, health, longevity, and disease

(James et al., 2024).

Instrumental devices used in sports may em-

ploy force or inertial sensors and biosignals acqui-

sition systems in order to capture impact force, re-

action/execution time, velocity, power, and accuracy

during activities such as kicking. These parameters

are important in disciplines such as Taekwondo that

demands not only technical skill but also a high level

of power and speed to be effective in competitive sit-

https://orcid.org/0009-0008-9682-6945

https://orcid.org/0009-0006-1648-1760

https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7588-9372

https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9530-9662

https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1390-8216

uations. Also, training systems focused on measuring

sliding and kicking parameters with data visualization

include embedded systems based on microcontrollers

and wireless data transfer (V

asquez et al., 2023).

Response time is deﬁned as the interval between

the onset of a visual, auditory, or human stimulus and

the moment the action or movement reaches the target

(Sant’Ana et al., 2017). Impact force is a key param-

eter in combat sports, it reﬂects the athlete’s ability

to generate effective power during the execution of

a technique. Various technological methods exist to

quantify this variable.

Examples of system developments for monitoring

these parameters include Sant’Ana et al. (2017) that

evaluated the effects of fatigue on reaction time, re-

sponse time, and impact force during the execution of

a roundhouse kick (Bandal Chagui). Their methodol-

ogy combined surface electromyography (EMG) and

triaxial accelerometry sensors placed on the athlete’s

ankle, enabling detection of both muscle activation

onset and impact moment. A visual stimulus was

used to initiate the movement; thus, reaction time was

measured from the onset of the stimulus to muscle

activation, and response time was measured until the

movement reached the target. Similarly, Ervilha et al.

200

Chato-Cantos, E. N., Rivera-Zamora, J. J., Villa-Parra, A. C., Cevallos-Larrea, P. and Alvarez-Alvarez, M.

Wearable System for Measuring Impact Force and Response Time in Taekwondo Using Piezoresistive Sensors.

DOI: 10.5220/0013717400003988

Paper published under CC license (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0)

In Proceedings of the 13th International Conference on Sport Sciences Research and Technology Support (icSPORTS 2025), pages 200-207

ISBN: 978-989-758-771-9; ISSN: 2184-3201

(2020) proposed a more detailed evaluation method-

ology by fractionating reaction time into three com-

ponents: pre-motor time, response time, and move-

ment time. Their study compared elite and novice

athletes, using surface EMG on trunk and lower limb

muscles, along with an electrogoniometer to measure

the knee angle during the kick. The electrogoniome-

ter helped identify the start of the movement, while a

switch placed on the target marked the end. The study

of Mudric et al. (2015) proposed a method based on

life-size projected videos simulating speciﬁc combat

scenarios. Here, karate athletes responded to visual

stimuli showing real offensive techniques recorded

from the opponent’s perspective. Participants were

required to perform a speciﬁc defensive action, which

was detected using 3D kinematic analysis through an

infrared camera system and reﬂective markers.

In this regard, studies have shown that test valid-

ity improves when human or context-speciﬁc stimuli

are used, as they elicit more natural and represen-

tative responses of actual sports performance (Paul

et al., 2016). This does not dismiss visual or auditory

stimuli, which also demonstrate high reliability, but

adapting the evaluation method to a contextualized

environment proves more suitable for distinguishing

between skill levels. For example, integrating tech-

nology into mobile elements that simulate speciﬁc

combat situations may provide more representative

and useful assessments for training design. Falco

et al. (2009) developed a system to measure both im-

pact force and execution time of the Bandal Chagui

kick in Taekwondo. They integrated a force plat-

form into a dummy composed of two circular wooden

plates, equipped with piezoresistive pressure sensors

arranged in a pentagonal structure to uniformly cap-

ture the contact area. A well-calibrated force plat-

form integrated into a realistic target can provide reli-

able and comparable measurements of technical per-

formance in combat sports.

Other authors who also used piezoelectric sen-

sors include Ng and Jumadi (2022), who developed

an IoT-based system to assess reaction time, kick

impact force, and a ﬂexibility index in Silat ath-

letes. Their prototype consisted of an impact plat-

form equipped with a piezoelectric force sensor con-

nected to a NodeMCU microcontroller. The data were

displayed in real-time on a mobile application with

impact force recorded at the moment the subject ex-

ecuted a front kick on the device. Thibordee and

Prasartwuth (2014) employed a uniaxial force trans-

ducer mounted on a ﬁxed impact target to record the

force of roundhouse kicks performed by Taekwondo

athletes. The system included a foam structure cov-

ered with PVC, mounted to a wall and connected to

the transducer, which was calibrated using standard

weights. Aguiar de Souza and Mattos (2017) built a

Wheatstone bridge using four strain gauges integrated

into a Makiwara, a vertical striking board made from

jatob

a wood for karate, with a rice straw pad as the

cushioning surface.

While strain gauges presents high long-term re-

liability, it should be implemented in a rigid struc-

ture that allows for correct deformation of the sensor.

It also requires an energy-dissipating surface such as

foam, which makes the entire system more bulky and

less practical for integration into wearable designs. In

contrast, piezoresistive sensors, being ﬂexible, thin,

and structurally small, allow for easier integration,

such as in dummies with irregular or non-ﬂat surfaces.

However, the disadvantage of this technology lies in

its long-term instability, requiring frequent recalibra-

tion to maintain data reliability.

Among accelerometers, Sant’Ana et al. (2017),

positioned on the athlete’s ankle to record leg acceler-

ation during a roundhouse kick. Based on these data,

and assuming the mass of the segment, the magni-

tude of the force was estimated, in this case repre-

sented as gravitational acceleration. This approach

demonstrated sensitivity to fatigue conditions, though

its precision depends on the biomechanical model em-

ployed. Liu et al. (2024), use a single accelerometer

sensor on the waist for taekwondo kick recognition

and Jang et al. (2022) analyzes Taekwondo kicks us-

ing inertial and impulse data.

Despite technological advances in sports per-

formance analysis—such as the use of force plat-

forms, high-speed cameras, force sensor systems,

electromyography (EMG), and video-based visual

stimuli—these solutions are often expensive, non-

portable, and restricted to laboratory environments.

This limitation hinders the ability to evaluate athletes

under real training or combat conditions.

This study presents the design and preliminary

validation of a wearable prototype integrated into a

Taekwondo chest protector. The system combines

piezoresistive force sensors encapsulated in Room

Temperature Vulcanizing (RTV) silicone rubber and

visual stimuli via LED strips, enabling real-time mea-

surement of both response time and impact force dur-

ing the execution of the Bandal Chagui (roundhouse

kick) technique.

Unlike previous studies that performed these mea-

surements using static equipment, such as ﬁxed rect-

angular targets (Thibordee and Prasartwuth, 2014; Ng

and Jumadi, 2022), or in laboratory environments that

restricted mobility due to the use of EMG systems

(Sant’Ana et al., 2017; Ervilha et al., 2020), this work

proposes a portable, low-cost solution integrated into

Wearable System for Measuring Impact Force and Response Time in Taekwondo Using Piezoresistive Sensors

201

a piece of equipment commonly used in both train-

ing and competition in Taekwondo, allowing for more

contextualized assessment.

The main objective of this work is to develop and

evaluate a low-cost, portable system capable of reli-

ably measuring these performance parameters in real-

istic training environments.

2 METHODOLOGY

Figure 1 presents the block diagram of the developed

prototype that includes a piezoresistive sensor system

(PSS), a visual stimulus module, a signal conditioning

and acquisition system, and a user interface (UI)

2.1 Piezoresistive Sensor System (PSS)

The primary objective of the PSS is to measure the

impact force generated during the execution of the

Bandal Chagui technique. To achieve this, a set of

piezoresistive sensors (PS) was integrated into the lat-

eral sections of a commercially available Taekwondo

chest protector, size 3. The physical space available

in this area limited the design of the module to a total

volume of 220 × 220 × 12 mm.

Piezoresistive sensors (C40 Model, MoreSuns-

DIY) with a 150 kg capacity were symmetrically dis-

tributed within the deﬁned area. These were fully

encapsulated in RTV silicone rubber to protect their

structure and ensure stable contact during impact.

The structure of the PSS was speciﬁcally designed to

channel and transfer the majority of the impact force

directly to the sensors while ensuring proper integra-

tion inside the protector.

2.2 Visual Stimulus

To emit the visual stimulus, two LED strips were inte-

grated onto each shoulder of the chest protector, with

the purpose of indicating to the athlete which side the

kick should be executed from. The activation of a spe-

ciﬁc LED strip serves as a start signal, prompting the

athlete to perform the Bandal Chagui kick on the same

side as the illuminated stimulus.

2.3 Electronics Implementation

The piezoresistive sensors are connected to an ana-

log signal conditioning circuit speciﬁcally designed

for this sensor array. This circuit includes individual

voltage dividers for each sensor and a non-inverting

summing ampliﬁer for each PSS, with an output volt-

age ranging from 0 to 3.3 V, compatible with the input

range of the acquisition system.

The processed signal is read by the 12-bit analog-

to-digital converter (ADC) of the ESP32 microcon-

troller, which digitizes and transmits the data wire-

lessly to the user interface via Bluetooth communica-

tion.

2.4 User Interface (UI)

The user interface allows wireless communication

with the chest protector and enables conﬁguration of

the number of kick repetitions and the operating mode

of the training protocol. Two operational modes are

available:

• Sequential mode: the system alternates between

left and right kicks in a ﬁxed order.

• Random mode: the side for the visual stimulus is

selected randomly.

Additionally, the UI provides real-time graphi-

cal visualization of the collected data, including im-

pact force and response time for each kick performed,

clearly indicating the corresponding laterality.

2.5 Calibration Procedure

For the calibration of the piezoresistive sensors, ten

weights of 45 lb (≈ 20.41 kg each) were used. The

sensor response was initially recorded with a single

weight, and the remaining weights were progressively

added, stacking one over another at 5-second inter-

vals.

The systematic recording of the data allowed for

the construction of a characteristic curve that de-

scribes the relationship between the applied force on

the sensors and their electrical response (output volt-

age). This curve was essential for evaluating the lin-

earity of the sensor, i.e., how proportional the output

is with respect to the increasing applied force.

A linear regression model without an intercept

of the form y = mx was selected to ensure a direct

proportionality between the output voltage and the

applied force. Including an intercept in the model

y = mx + b led to estimation inconsistencies, where

identical sensors produced disproportionate force val-

ues under the same impact conditions. Moreover, the

presence of a constant term could result in negative

force values when the measured voltage fell below the

calibration threshold, which is physically incorrect.

It was also observed that, for low-intensity impacts,

small voltage variations caused signiﬁcant errors in

the estimated force, an effect that was minimized us-

ing the model without an intercept.

icSPORTS 2025 - 13th International Conference on Sport Sciences Research and Technology Support

202

LEDs

Mechanical components:

Silicone rubber

Electronic components:

Pressure sensors

Wires

Audio terminals

Conditioning circuit

Microcontroller

Sequence programming and

data visualization

VISUAL STIMULUS

Results:

Maximum force (N)

Response Time (s)

Data storage

Figure 1: Block diagram of the complete measurement prototype, including sensing, data processing, visual stimulus, and

user interface.

Based on this analysis, a transfer function was

established (Figure 2) to interpret the sensor’s out-

put values in terms of actual physical force. Table 1

presents the calibration curve parameters for each of

the sensor systems.

Finally, from the tests conducted, it was deter-

mined that the sensors exhibit drift in their behavior

over time; therefore, it is recommended to perform a

weekly recalibration process to maintain the reliabil-

ity of the collected data.

Table 1: Calibration curve characteristics for each sensor

system.

Characteristics PSS-L PSS-R

Accuracy 77.79% 67.05%

Linearity error ± 11.43 (% FS) ± 20.31 (% FS)

Hysteresis error ± 11.36 (% FS) ± 12.95 (% FS)

Total error ± 16.12 (% FS) ± 24.09 (% FS)

2.6 Evaluation

To evaluate the effectiveness of the prototype in a

real-world setting, an experimental protocol was de-

signed. All selected individuals had prior experience

in the sport and were in adequate physical condition

to perform the required tasks.

The protocol was validated by a Taekwondo

coach.

Participants. The study included six active Taek-

wondo athletes, selected by the coach. Participants

ranged in age from 20 to 43 years old. All had a min-

imum of three years of experience and trained at least

three times per week. Among them, one athlete was

43 years old and had 27 years of experience. No be-

ginners or individuals with recent injuries were admit-

ted to the study. A demographic and athletic proﬁle

was collected from each participant at the beginning

of the session, including leg dominance, which was

self-reported through a short form completed by the

athletes. All participants signed an informed consent

form and attended the session wearing comfortable

sportswear.

Experimental Setup. The tests were conducted us-

ing the instrumented chest protector, which includes

a system of piezoresistive sensors and visual stimuli

delivered via lateral LED strips (see Figure 3). To en-

sure a standardized distance between the participants

and the impact target (the chest protector), the dis-

tance from the iliac crest to the ankle malleolus of

each athlete was measured. A reference line was then

marked on the ﬂoor at 15 cm less than this distance,

indicating the position from which the kick should be

executed.

Furthermore, the height of the impact target was

adjusted individually for each participant, set to the

height of the iliac crest plus 15 cm. This conﬁguration

Wearable System for Measuring Impact Force and Response Time in Taekwondo Using Piezoresistive Sensors

203

(a)

(b)

Figure 2: Characteristic curves of the sensor system: (a)

right side, (b) left side.

allowed for a standardized and body-proportionate

reference for all athletes (see Figure 4).

Experimental Protocol. The complete procedure

lasted approximately 25 min per participant and was

divided into the following stages:

Informed consent: The purpose of the test, eth-

ical considerations, and data usage were explained

to each participant. In accordance with the princi-

ples of the Declaration of Helsinki, all participants

were informed about the objectives of the study, the

procedures involved, the potential beneﬁts and risks,

and the voluntary nature of their participation. They

were also notiﬁed about the conﬁdentiality and pro-

tection of their personal data, as well as their right to

withdraw from the study at any time without conse-

quences.

Preparation: Personal data such as full name,

age, height, weight, years of Taekwondo practice, and

weekly training frequency were recorded. Then, par-

ticipants performed a warm-up exercise consisting of

Figure 3: Location of the components on the chest protec-

tor. Red circles indicate the position of the piezoresistive

sensors, while black circles indicate the placement of the

LED strips for visual stimulation.

three sets of 15 squats at 90 degrees, at a pace of

one squat per second, with 30 s of rest between sets.

While the warm-up was performed, the researchers

conﬁgured the appropriate height and distance of the

setup for each athlete (see Figure 4).

Procedure: Each participant performed the Ban-

dal Chagui technique under two visual stimulus con-

ditions: A. Sequential mode: Six repetitions were per-

formed in response to alternating LED signals indi-

cating left and right sides. After a 30-s rest, the cycle

was repeated twice, for a total of 2 cycles. B. Random

Mode: LED indicators were triggered in a random or-

der, and the participant had to respond by kicking on

the corresponding side. Again, 6 repetitions per cy-

cle were performed, with 30 seconds of rest between

cycles, for a total of 2 cycles.

During the experimental session, subjects were

video recorded from the sagittal plane, starting from

the warm-up phase through the completion of the

tests. This footage was used solely for documentation

purposes. Faces were blurred in all recorded material

to ensure the privacy and anonymity of the partici-

pants. At the end of the session, participants com-

pleted a brief user feedback and recommendation sur-

vey, accessible via a QR code. This survey collected

qualitative data on the perceived usefulness, usability,

and suggestions for improvement of the prototype.

icSPORTS 2025 - 13th International Conference on Sport Sciences Research and Technology Support

204

Table 2: Average values of impact force and response time (RT) during the Bandal Chagui technique for each participant. R

= Right leg; L = Left leg.

Subject Weight (kg) Dominant Leg Force Seq (N) Force Rand (N) RT Seq (s) RT Rand (s)

1 59

Right 705 (R) 535 (R) 0.628 (R) 0.700 (R)

565 (L) 529 (L) 0.589 (L) 0.670 (L)

2 50

Right 501 (R) 288 (R) 0.878 (R) 0.929 (R)

201 (L) 114 (L) 0.897 (L) 1.108 (L)

3 59

Right 300 (R) 321 (R) 1.314 (R) 1.479 (R)

246 (L) 173 (L) 1.047 (L) 1.327 (L)

4 60

Right 629 (R) 583 (R) 1.385 (R) 1.370 (R)

423 (L) 436 (L) 0.900 (L) 0.994 (L)

5 49

Right 565 (R) 536 (R) 0.929 (R) 1.123 (R)

507 (L) 334 (L) 0.918 (L) 1.008 (L)

6 60

Left 278 (L) 480 (L) 1.115 (L) 1.001 (L)

310 (R) 352 (R) 0.818 (R) 0.809 (R)

Figure 4: Experimental setup conﬁguration for testing the

instrumented chest protector. Red lines indicate participant-

speciﬁc distance adjustments made to ensure proper align-

ment and comfort.

3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The experiment was conducted with six subjects. Im-

pact force and response time were evaluated during

the execution of the Bandal Chagui technique under

two conditions: sequential (alternating visual stimu-

lation) and random (unpredictable visual stimulation).

The results are summarized in Table 2.

An average decrease of 8.16 % in impact force

was observed during the random condition compared

to the sequential condition. Response time increased

by an average of 10.78% under the random condition.

In most cases, the dominant leg produced a higher

impact force than the non-dominant one. However,

during the random trials, this difference tended to de-

crease, likely due to the additional cognitive demand

associated with rapid decision-making. Only one par-

ticipant (with left-leg dominance) showed a signiﬁ-

cant increase in force from the non-dominant leg un-

der the random condition.

All participants showed an increase in response

time during the random condition and a decrease in

impact force, except for one case (Participant 6), who

improved in both force and response time.

This suggests that the unpredictability of the

visual stimulus negatively affects technical perfor-

mance, likely due to increased demands in cognitive

processing and motor planning.

The developed prototype demonstrated the abil-

ity to estimate both impact force and response time

in out-of-laboratory conditions with Taekwondo ath-

letes. This allowed for testing in a more contextu-

alized environment for measuring these parameters

(Paul et al., 2016), which showed differences when

sequential and random visual stimulation modes were

applied. The increase in response time observed un-

der the random mode suggests a higher cognitive load

associated with the unpredictability of the visual stim-

ulus (Mickevi

cien

e et al., 2018; Mudric et al., 2015).

Some authors, such as Shen and Franz (2005), sug-

gest that this increase is more closely related to move-

ment execution speed rather than cognitive process-

ing or motor preparation. However, other studies,

such as Mickevi

cien

e et al. (2018), indicate that task

complexity affects both reaction time and movement

speed, supporting Hick’s Law (Proctor and Schneider,

2018). Therefore, cognitive processing and decision-

making may have inﬂuenced the athletes’ response

times.

Both perspectives—the one proposing that reac-

tion time remains constant and only execution time is

affected (Shen and Franz, 2005), and the one suggest-

ing that both reaction time and movement speed are

inﬂuenced by task complexity (Mickevi

cien

e et al.,

2018)—converge on the same outcome: a decrease in

execution speed. This reduction in speed may be one

Wearable System for Measuring Impact Force and Response Time in Taekwondo Using Piezoresistive Sensors

205

of the factors explaining the observed decrease in im-

pact force under more complex conditions. Generat-

ing explosive force, particularly in techniques such as

the Bandal Chagui (roundhouse kick), requires pro-

ducing a high amount of force within a short period

of time (Corcoran et al., 2024). Moreover, during the

execution of the Bandal Chagui in random mode, it

was observed that some athletes reacted even when

the striking leg was in a forward stance—a position

that reduces the impulse needed to generate greater

force, although it enables faster execution.

This prototype may be useful for coaches and ath-

letes, as it enables performance evaluations in more

realistic contexts than traditional laboratory methods.

Its portability opens up possibilities for application

during sparring (Kyorugui) training sessions involv-

ing human intervention. This would allow for athlete

assessment under more complex and competition-like

conditions. Additionally, it may support the develop-

ment of training programs focused on improving both

response time and impact force under conditions of

uncertainty and movement. A major limitation was

the instability of the sensors, which led to calibration

errors that may have affected some of the recordings.

Furthermore, the small sample size limits the general-

izability of the results. Future studies should include a

larger and more diverse sample with varying skill lev-

els and categories. It would also be beneﬁcial to im-

prove the accuracy of the force measurement system

to achieve results that better reﬂect real-world perfor-

mance. Finally, incorporating an electromyography

(EMG) system to record muscle activation could al-

low for more precise segmentation of reaction time in

response to complex visual stimuli in realistic scenar-

ios.

4 CONCLUSIONS

This work provides preliminary evidence on the fea-

sibility of using wearable systems to assess Taek-

wondo performance. The results obtained in out-

of-laboratory conditions showed differences between

the sequential and random testing modes, suggest-

ing that increased cognitive load negatively affects

technical performance. However, certain limitations

should be acknowledged, including sample size con-

straints (n=6) limiting statistical generalization, sen-

sor drift requiring weekly recalibration, and evalua-

tion restricted to Bandal Chagui technique on chest

protectors. Despite these limitations, this work rep-

resents an initial step toward a tool capable of mea-

suring key parameters such as reaction time and re-

sponse time in contextualized environments—an es-

sential aspect for evaluating the true nature of the

sport. The system demonstrated consistent behavior

and clear potential for further improvement. Future

research could focus on increasing the number of par-

ticipants and applying inferential statistics to provide

evidence of differences between sequential and ran-

dom modes, integrating electromyography (EMG) to

measure reaction time and validating the prototype in

competition sessions

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