The Applications and Challenges of Batteries in New Energy Vehicles

Nianqi Zhou

College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Southwest Petroleum University, Chengdu, Sichuan, 610500, China

Keywords: New Energy Vehicles, Battery, Application, Trend.

Abstract: Fossil fuels have historically been crucial for the survival and advancement of human society. However, the

excessive exploitation and combustion of fossil fuels to meet increasing demands have severely damaged the

ecological environment and, to some extent, hindered further societal development. Electricity, as a widely

sourced and fossil fuel-independent cleaner energy, holds significant potential. Given the growing demand

for transportation, the electrification of private cars presents an effective strategy to reduce fossil fuel

consumption. New energy vehicles, which utilize unconventional fuels and incorporate innovative framework

structures suited for these energy sources, are at the forefront of this transition. Predominantly, new energy

vehicles include electric vehicles, fuel cell vehicles, and others that rely on electricity as their primary energy

source. The battery, being the core component of new energy vehicles, has a crucial impact on how well they

perform. This article analyzes advantages and disadvantages of various battery types - nickel-hydrogen

batteries, lithium-ion batteries, sodium-ion batteries, and fuel cells - along with their main applications. It

explores their current development status and primary challenges, and subsequently predicts the trends of new

energy vehicles and their batteries based on market dynamics and policy frameworks.

1 INTRODUCTION

Energy, as the cornerstone of human societal

advancement, ensures the continuous survival and

development of human civilization. From steam

engines to internal combustion engines, fossil fuels

have played an indispensable role in energy

development. Fossil fuels, as non-renewable energy

resources requiring hundreds of millions of years to

regenerate, are the most common and easily

accessible hydrocarbons in nature. However, current

consumption rates have significantly surpassed

regeneration and extraction yields. Relevant

exploration statistics indicate that there are

approximately 894.5 billion tons of coal, 238.2 billion

tons of oil, and 186 trillion cubic meters of natural gas

left detectable in the world. Based on current average

extraction rates, it is estimated that these fossil fuels

will be depleted in approximately 113, 53, and 55

years, respectively (Novara et al., 2023).

Consequently, the energy issue is a critical challenge

facing humanity today, necessitating an urgent

reduction in fossil fuel usage and researching and

developing renewable energy sources including solar,

wind, and tidal energy urgently. These renewable

sources possess the cleanliness characteristics absent

in traditional fossil fuels. Furthermore, the research,

development, and widespread adoption of clean

energy can effectively mitigate environmental

pollution and damage caused by excessive fossil fuel

extraction and use.

Electricity, due to its ease of conversion and wide

range of sources, is increasingly recognized as a more

economical and cleaner energy alternative to fossil

fuels. Various clean energy sources, such as solar and

tidal energy, can be converted into electricity through

specific technical processes. As the global economy

continues to develop, the number of private cars is

rising, with individuals increasingly preferring

private vehicles for transportation. This trend leads to

excessive fossil fuel consumption and continuous

environmental pollution and degradation. The

electrification of transportation presents an efficient

solution to current energy shortages.

Environmental protection, sustainability, low

emissions, and energy conservation have become new

imperatives for transportation. Among various

vehicle types, new energy vehicles best meet these

requirements. These vehicles have transitioned from

internal combustion engines to batteries as their core

power source. Consequently, the performance

indicators of batteries, such as energy density, cost,

and lifespan, directly or indirectly influence the

performance of new energy vehicles, underscoring

Zhou, N.

The Applications and Challenges of Batteries in New Energy Vehicles.

DOI: 10.5220/0013935700004914

Paper published under CC license (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0)

In Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on Renewable Energy and Ecosystem (ICREE 2024), pages 319-324

ISBN: 978-989-758-776-4

319

the critical role of batteries. Continuous technological

research and development have resulted in various

battery types, each with unique performance

characteristics, leading to a diverse range of new

energy vehicles in the market. However, due to

immature technology, new energy vehicles still face

challenges related to cost, endurance, and other

factors.

Therefore, this article will focus on the various

types of batteries used in new energy vehicles,

primarily examining the advantages, disadvantages,

and applicability of four commonly used batteries:

nickel-hydrogen batteries, lithium-ion batteries,

sodium-ion batteries, and fuel cells. Additionally, it

will analyze their future development trends.

2 CLASSIFICATION AND

ADVANTAGES AND

DISADVANTAGES OF NEW

ENERGY VEHICLE

BATTERIES

2.1 Nickel Hydrogen Battery

Nickel hydrogen batteries, characterized by a nickel

oxide electrode and a hydrogen storage electrode,

function through the hydrogen storage electrode's

ability to store and release gases, facilitating ion

movement and enabling the charging and discharging

process (Figure 1). Widely utilized in hybrid vehicles,

nickel hydrogen batteries have reached a mature,

large-scale production stage globally. Prominent

examples include Toyota and Lexus hybrid electric

vehicles such as Toyota's LEVIN Hybrid and Lexus's

CT200H and ES300H models (Ying, 2024).

Figure 1: Operating principle of nickel hydrogen battery (Jean and Wang, 2024).

Nickel hydrogen batteries can be classified as

single-element batteries, which means that they

employ a cathode material containing only one metal

element and involve a single electrochemical reaction

during charging and discharging (Wei et al., 2024).

Other single-element batteries include lead-acid and

nickel cadmium batteries. Compared to these, nickel

hydrogen batteries can provide with higher energy

density, longer cycle life, and greater environmental

friendliness due to their recyclability and the absence

of heavy metals. However, single-element batteries

typically suffer from a memory effect, leading to

rapid capacity reduction. Therefore, careful

management of charging time is crucial to prevent

overcharging, which can result in dangerous battery

expansion.

2.2 Lithium-Ion Batteries

Lithium-ion batteries operate by facilitating the flow

of lithium ions between the anode and cathode,

thereby completing the charging and discharging

process (Figure 2). These batteries are the most

widely utilized in new energy vehicles, with lithium

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iron phosphate batteries (binary batteries) and ternary

polymer lithium batteries (ternary batteries, such as

lithium nickel cobalt manganese oxide batteries)

being the most common types. For instance, the entire

range of BYD electric vehicles employs lithium iron

phosphate batteries, while the rear-wheel-drive

version of the Tesla Model 3 also utilizes these

batteries, and the all-wheel-drive version uses ternary

lithium batteries (Tang, 2023).

Figure 2: Operating principle of lithium-ion battery (Selvi et al., 2024).

Both types of lithium-ion batteries provide

significant merits, such as high energy density,

extended cycle life, and environmental friendliness.

Ternary lithium batteries, in particular, can enhance

their performance by adjusting the proportions of

nickel, cobalt, and manganese in the cathode, leading

to higher energy density and stability. However,

compared to lithium iron phosphate batteries, ternary

lithium batteries are more expensive and exhibit

poorer performance at high temperatures, limiting

their application range. Currently, in the industry, the

safety of lithium-ion batteries is often improved

through packaging, which, however, results in a

decrease in their energy density.

2.3 Sodium Ion Battery

Because both types of batteries store and release

energy through the flow of ions between electrodes,

sodium-ion batteries and lithium-ion batteries operate

on similar principles (Figure 3). Since sodium is more

accessible, abundant, widely distributed, and lower in

cost than lithium, sodium-ion batteries present a

viable substitute for lithium-ion batteries. Studies

indicate that the cost of sodium-ion batteries is

approximately two-thirds lower than that of lithium-

ion batteries. Additionally, sodium ions exhibit faster

conduction speed and higher internal resistance,

resulting in sodium-ion batteries outperforming in

terms of energy density, cycle life, charging speed,

safety, and low-temperature performance (Zhang,

2023).

However, sodium-ion battery technology and

industrial development are still in their infancy,

requiring continuous innovation and advancement.

Currently, there is one electric vehicle on the market

equipped with a sodium-ion battery: the Jianghuai

Automobile Group's Sihao EX10 Huaxianzi short-

distance vehicle, which features an energy density of

approximately 130 Wh/kg and a range of 252

kilometers (Hanley, 2023).

The Applications and Challenges of Batteries in New Energy Vehicles

321

Figure 3: Operating principle of sodium ion battery (Liang et al., 2024).

2.4 Fuel Cell

Through electrochemical processes, a fuel cell is an

effective chemical device that directly transforms

chemical energy from fuel into electrical energy. It

utilizes the directional movement of particles

generated by the oxidation-reduction reactions at the

positive and negative electrodes to form a circuit,

thereby generating an electric current, which is

essentially the reverse process of water electrolysis

(Figure 4). Fuel cells are characterized by high

conversion efficiency and high energy density.

Furthermore, they can utilize any hydrogen-

containing substance as fuel, although hydrogen fuel

cells, which use fuels such as liquid hydrogen and

hydrogen storage metals, have the most extensive

application prospects (Li et al., 2024). This is

primarily because hydrogen fuel cells produce water

as a byproduct and do not emit greenhouse gases,

thereby offering environmentally friendly and

pollution-free operation with high safety and stability.

However, due to current technological limitations, the

costs of hydrogen fuel cells and the infrastructure

required for their deployment are relatively high,

impeding their widespread application at present.

Figure 4: Operating principle of hydrogen fuel cell (Halder

et al., 2024).

3 PROSPECTS FOR NEW

ENERGY VEHICLE

BATTERIES

Currently, the four types of batteries discussed have

achieved notable breakthroughs and successes in new

energy vehicle applications, with related vehicles

performing well or even excellently. However,

numerous issues urgently require attention and

resolution by researchers. Firstly, energy density,

primarily determined by the anode and cathode

materials, remains a critical concern. For example,

sodium-ion batteries exhibit higher energy density

than lithium-ion batteries, which in turn surpass

nickel-hydrogen batteries. Additionally, the size and

capacity of the battery pack significantly impact

energy density and influence material selection and

vehicle frame structure. Specifically, increasing the

battery pack's capacity and size can extend vehicle

range but also increases the overall volume and

weight, leading to higher energy consumption to

maintain performance, thereby creating a feedback

loop of increased weight and energy use. Secondly,

the charging efficiency of car batteries presents a

significant challenge. To protect battery safety and

extend service life, charging methods switch from

high-power DC fast charging to low-power AC slow

charging after reaching 80% capacity. While the

former takes 30 minutes to an hour, the latter can

require 5 to 6 hours or more, highlighting the

inefficiency in emergency situations (Wang and Li,

2019). Finally, the disposal of scrapped batteries

poses a major challenge. Continuous battery use leads

to irreversible declines in capacity and performance,

rendering batteries unsuitable for vehicle power when

capacity falls to 75% of the set value. Recycling and

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processing methods, such as cascade utilization and

regeneration, are essential. Although some countries

have achieved success in this area, China's

standardized recycling rate through formal channels

remains low despite policy support. This results in

substandard products on the market, such as mobile

phone power banks, posing threats to personal and

environmental safety.

As energy and environmental concerns become

increasingly pressing, there is an urgent need for

breakthroughs in battery and related technologies to

address these challenges through technical means.

Current research primarily aims to enhance battery

performance, environmental sustainability, safety,

and cost reduction. One approach involves optimizing

electrode materials in existing batteries to improve

their energy density, cycle life, and other performance

metrics. For example, transitioning from costly

chromium and manganese to more economical

vanadium in lithium-ion batteries or introducing new

elements like silicon into graphite materials can

enhance performance while reducing costs.

Furthermore, improved performance is promised by

the development of new battery types as solid-state

and aluminum ion batteries. Another important factor

that makes it possible for new energy vehicles to be

widely adopted is charging technology. Research

efforts focus on accelerating charging speeds,

mitigating lifespan degradation, and addressing

safety concerns associated with rapid charging-

induced heat generation. At the national level,

governments recognize the significance of these

challenges and have implemented supportive policies

to facilitate rapid technological development and

promote electric vehicle adoption. For instance, in

China, initiatives such as the "Development Plan for

the New Energy Vehicle Industry (2021-2035),"

"Notice on Organizing Pilot Work for

Comprehensive Electrification of Public Sector

Vehicles," and "Guiding Opinions on Further

Building a High-Quality Charging Infrastructure

System" underscore the commitment to advancing the

new energy vehicle industry, expanding public

electric transportation, and building robust

infrastructure (Wang, 2024). Additionally,

advantageous support policies, such as subsidies and

brand incentives, incentivize consumers to purchase

new energy vehicles, promoting enterprise growth

and technological innovation in the industry.

The popularization of new energy cars on the road

necessitates the expansion of industrial clusters and

supply chains. Scaling up not only reduces costs but

also fosters the collective advancement of associated

industries. Specifically, larger scales ensure efficient

and stable supply chain operations, concentrating

production processes and reducing cycle times,

thereby enhancing production rates and minimizing

material waste, leading to decreased production costs.

Moreover, scalability facilitates the identification of

production process issues, enabling process

optimization and fostering mutual growth among

industries, ultimately providing robust support for the

advancement of batteries and new energy vehicles.

Additionally, scale effects ensure consistent and high-

quality production, bolstering public acceptance and

facilitating the broader adoption of new energy cars.

4 CONCLUSION

In summary, the ongoing development of new energy

batteries and the promotion of new energy cars

represent highly efficient and feasible approaches to

addressing current energy and environmental

challenges. This article systematically analyzes

several representative new energy batteries, outlining

their characteristics, current status, and

developmental trajectories. Nickel hydrogen

batteries, lithium-ion batteries, and fuel cells, widely

utilized and with broad application prospects, have

significantly contributed to industry advancement

and the resolution of contemporary energy and

environmental issues. Additionally, sodium ion

batteries, as emerging technologies, exhibit

promising performance and represent a highly viable

new energy battery option. However, challenges such

as cost, charging rates, and cycle life persist and

warrant continuous research and development efforts.

Furthermore, optimization of battery production

supply chains, market expansion for new energy

vehicles, and the widespread adoption of such

vehicles are crucial endeavors. Alongside scientific

exploration, the national government must issue

corresponding policies and take action to encourage

the growth of the new energy battery sector.

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