Electrification of Maritime Vehicles: Exploration of Key Battery

Technologies and Sustainable Development Pathways

Ke Liu

College of Mechanical and Transportation Engineering, China University of Petroleum, Beijing, 100000, China

Keywords: Electrification of Maritime Vehicles, Batteries, Hybrid Power Systems.

Abstract: Despite significant advancements in the electrification of land transportation, maritime electrification still

faces unique challenges such as diverse vessel types and complex routes. Lithium-ion batteries provide

substantial energy storage and rapid recharge rates. but they are costly and pose safety risks. Fuel cells, on the

other hand, provide high efficiency and zero emissions but are expensive and technologically complex. This

paper explores the prospects of electrification for maritime vehicles, focusing on the application potential of

lithium-ion batteries and fuel cells. Additionally, it discusses the use of hybrid power systems combining

internal combustion engines and electric motors in maritime vehicles. As technology advances, further

breakthroughs will be made in the electrification of maritime vehicles, contributing to the achievement of the

global Sustainable Development Goals. In addition, the paper also introduces new concepts such as shore

power systems, cold ironing, and isolated energy systems to promote sustainable maritime operations and the

development of green ports, aiming to integrate renewable energy for environmental goals.

1 INTRODUCTION

In contemporary society, the proliferation of

electrical devices has been remarkable, encompassing

everything from small mobile devices to private cars

and large public transportation systems. The trend

toward electrification has become an unstoppable

force, driven by two primary necessities:

environmental and economic demands. The rise in

global green-house gas emissions and the dwindling

reserves of fuels have accelerated the demand for

transportation electrification. Over the past decade,

advancements in battery and power electronics

technologies have significantly accelerated the

electrification of land transportation. As land

transportation electrification progresses rapidly, the

focus has shifted towards the greening of maritime

and aviation sectors (Qazi et al., 2023). The

greenhouse effect and harmful exhaust emissions

from vehicles have severely impacted the

environment, making the shift towards more

environmentally friendly electrical equipment an

inevitable direction for future development.

Additionally, electrification not only protects the

environment but also enhances efficiency and reduces

maintenance costs, offering a promising outlook for

electric vehicles.

However, the process of electrification is not

without its challenges. Firstly, electrification does not

necessarily equate to environmental improvement. In

many cases, the operation of electric vehicles still

relies on high-pollution fossil fuels. Therefore, the

rational development and use of electric vehicles are

crucial; otherwise, electrification may become a

superficial effort with no real environmental benefit.

Secondly, while the complete realization of

electrification seems imminent, it also faces

numerous obstacles. Technological advancements

and scientific research require substantial

investments in human and material resources, and the

necessary infrastructure and support measures

demand significant funding. Moreover, when the

investment in electrification reaches a certain

threshold, the costs may exceed the benefits, leading

to financial inefficiency. Therefore, it is crucial to

evaluate the costs and development progress in other

sectors when advancing the electrification process.

Vehicle electrification can be subdivided into three

categories: land, sea, and air. This paper focuses on

the electrification of maritime vehicles. Unlike land

vehicles, maritime and aviation vehicles are large in

size, and under current infrastructure and

technological conditions, developing fully electric

large maritime or aerial vehicles is unrealistic.

Therefore, current research still heavily relies on fuel.

308

Liu, K.

Electriﬁcation of Maritime Vehicles: Exploration of Key Battery Technologies and Sustainable Development Pathways.

DOI: 10.5220/0013933400004914

Paper published under CC license (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0)

In Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on Renewable Energy and Ecosystem (ICREE 2024), pages 308-313

ISBN: 978-989-758-776-4

To save fuel, reduce costs, and save time, the research

direction for the foreseeable future is hybrid models

that combine oil and electric power. The main

limiting factor in this process is fuel technology.

Without groundbreaking advancements in battery

technology, such as creating high energy density

batteries, the electrification process can only progress

gradually. There is significant research potential in

areas such as circuit optimization, strategy

formulation, and navigation systems. Progress in

these fields will greatly advance the electrification

process. Therefore, analysis, summarization, and

prediction in this domain will provide valuable

insights for the energy industry.

This paper thoroughly discusses the current state

of maritime vehicle development, infrastructure

equipment, the application and prospects of hybrid

power systems, and the research and application of

batteries. Additionally, it explores promising

concepts such as S2S, CI, and IES. By integrating

these topics, the paper analyzes the process of

maritime vehicle electrification and extends the

discussion to the entire energy and environmental

system.

2 LITHIUM-ION BATTERIES

These batteries are popular in modern applications

because they offer substantial energy storage capacity

and do not suffer from the memory effect. The

essential parts of this battery are the cathode,

separator, anode, and electrolyte. During the charge

process, energy conversion is achieved through the

movement of lithium ions. Given their efficient

energy storage and long lifespan, Lithium-ion

batteries are vital for the progress of maritime vehicle

electrification. Current technological frontiers are

focused on the improvement and application of

lithium-ion batteries, striving for breakthroughs in

battery technology to enhance the performance and

sustainability of electric vehicles.

In recent years, ships have extensively adopted

lithium-ion batteries because of their high cycle life

and substantial energy density，but they continue to

encounter several challenges in commodity

transportation and battery compartments control. This

paper analyzes such safety risks of lithium-ion

batteries in maritime applications, including thermal

abuse, spontaneous combustion, and deformation

from collisions. Methods to simplify large-scale

battery modeling through numerical simulation and

spontaneous combustion theory are proposed. The

importance of precise monitoring of battery

parameters and the improvement of cooling and

ventilation systems is emphasized. Future research

will focus on large-scale risk analysis to refine

relevant regulations and standards, thereby enhancing

the safety control of lithium-ion batteries in maritime

transportation and vessel application (Yin et al.,

2024).

Lithium-ion batteries provide several benefits,

such as high energy density, lack of memory effect,

storage stability, lightweight, and fast charging

speeds. Specifically, their high energy density

enables a significant amount of energy to be stored in

a compact space, which is particularly important for

maritime vehicles requiring substantial energy

reserves. Additionally, the absence of memory effect

makes lithium-ion batteries more flexible in charge

and discharge management, suitable for long-

duration sea voyages. In terms of storage stability, the

low self-discharge rate of lithium-ion batteries

ensures minimal energy loss over extended periods of

inactivity, providing a significant advantage for

maritime vehicles needing long-term energy reserves.

Moreover, the relatively small size and weight of

lithium-ion batteries facilitate easier transport and

installation, while their efficient charging speeds

further enhance user convenience.

Although maritime transportation emissions are

relatively lower than those of other industries, the

climate problem has heightened market and

regulatory demands for reducing these emissions,

thereby promoting the electrification of the shipping

industry. Batteries, particularly lithium-ion batteries,

are critical to the energy transition in maritime

transport. Battery Energy Storage Systems (BESS)

offer advantages in terms of energy efficiency and

operational costs, making them suitable for various

ship types and missions. In the future, with

advancements in solid-state batteries and sodium-ion

batteries, fully electric ships will see wider

application. The integration of batteries requires the

optimization of shipboard electrical grids and energy

management systems to ensure high survivability and

reliability (Trombetta et al., 2024).

However, lithium-ion batteries also have several

notable drawbacks. Firstly, there is the issue of high

cost. Lithium-ion batteries require the use of rare

metals such as cobalt and nickel, which not only

increase material costs but also make the production

process complex and expensive. Additionally, the

maintenance and infrastructure requirements for

lithium-ion batteries are high, necessitating the

establishment of comprehensive battery management

systems and charging facilities, further escalating the

overall cost. Secondly, there are safety concerns. The

Electriﬁcation of Maritime Vehicles: Exploration of Key Battery Technologies and Sustainable Development Pathways

309

highly reactive nature of lithium metal and the high

energy density of the batteries can lead to explosions

or leaks if the batteries are mechanically or

chemically damaged, posing significant safety

hazards. Finally, there is the environmental impact.

The production and disposal of lithium-ion batteries

can result in environmental pollution, necessitating

the establishment of robust environmental protection

measures and recycling systems to mitigate negative

impacts on ecosystems. Considering these pros and

cons, research and application of lithium-ion batteries

need to strike a balance between technological

advancement and environmental protection.

3 FUEL CELLS

Fuel cells generate electricity by converting hydrogen

and oxygen through a chemical process, producing

water and heat as the sole byproducts. This clean and

efficient process has led to their widespread market

application. The primary types include three common

variants, with ongoing research on methanol and

molten carbonate types. Fuel cells offer advantages

such as high energy density, efficiency, quick

refueling, stability, and environmental friendliness.

They emit no harmful substances, only water, and

have low noise levels, aiding in pollution reduction

and marine ecosystem protection (Wang et al., 2023).

To meet the IMO goal for reducing shipping

emissions, fuel cell technology is regarded as a

promising alternative for marine power generation.

Research indicates that PEM fuel cells are a top

choice due to their high power-to-weight ratio and

operational flexibility. Case studies reveal that this

fuel cell technology not only substantially cuts

emissions but also excels in practical applications. In

summary, fuel cells offer substantial potential for

green shipping, with clear advantages particularly in

advancing decarbonization. Liquid ammonia is

regarded as the most ideal hydrogen carrier. An

efficiently designed ammonia reforming system can

produce hydrogen, which, when combined with PEM

fuel cells, can significantly reduce emissions.

Although this system's cost is higher than that of

diesel engines, its environmental benefits justify the

investment (Seyfi et al., 2023).

In the field of maritime vehicles, the application

of fuel cells is still in its early stages but has already

shown significant progress. The high efficiency and

zero-emission characteristics of fuel cells make them

a promising alternative to traditional diesel engines.

The energy conversion efficiency of fuel cells

typically ranges from 40% to 60%, which is

significantly higher than that of traditional internal

combustion engines. When combined with heat

recovery systems, the overall efficiency can exceed

80%. This high-efficiency energy conversion gives

fuel cells a distinct advantage in terms of energy

efficiency.

Currently, the use of fuel cells in maritime

vehicles is still in its early stages, is primarily focused

on auxiliary power systems and vessels for short-

distance voyages. For example, the world's first

hydrogen fuel cell ferry, MF Hydra, launched in

Norway in 2021, demonstrated the potential of fuel

cells in practical maritime transportation.

Additionally, Japan is developing hydrogen fuel cell-

powered port handling equipment to reduce carbon

emissions from port operations. However, the

implementation of fuel cells in maritime applications

still faces numerous technical challenges.

First, there are challenges related to the storage

and transportation of hydrogen. Hydrogen needs to be

stored at low temperatures or high pressures, posing

safety risks for maritime transport. Solutions include

developing safer hydrogen storage materials and

technologies. Secondly, there are challenges related

to hydrogen production and supply chains. Currently,

hydrogen is primarily produced through natural gas

reforming, which generates carbon dioxide

emissions. Future green hydrogen production will

need to rely on renewable energy sources, such as

water electrolysis, to mitigate environmental impacts.

Governments worldwide are actively promoting

the adoption of fuel cell technology. For instance, the

European Union's "European Green Deal" provides

funding to support fuel cell research and

development, while the United States encourages

hydrogen energy development through various

federal programs. It is expected that by 2030, the

global fuel cell market will expand significantly, with

applications covering maritime transport, land

transport, and stationary power systems.

The environmental benefits of fuel cells are

considerable. Their only byproduct is water, with no

harmful gas emissions. By replacing traditional diesel

engines, fuel cells can greatly avoid emissions of

various bad gases, helping to address global climate

change. Additionally, fuel cells operate with low

noise levels, reducing their impact on marine

ecosystems and helping to protect the ocean

environment.

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4 HYBRID SYSTEMS

The electrification of maritime vehicles is a crucial

pathway to achieving low-carbon and green shipping,

but pure electric systems face numerous challenges.

Currently, most applications utilize hybrid power

systems, which combine the advantages of internal

combustion engines (ICE) and electric motors,

making them the primary choice now and in the

foreseeable future.

Hybrid systems leverage the strengths of both

electric motors and internal combustion engines,

offering potential benefits comparable to those of

pure electric systems. The principle behind hybrid

systems involves using an internal combustion engine

to drive a generator that produces electricity, which

then powers the electric motor. Alternatively, the

internal combustion engine and the electric motor can

operate independently or simultaneously to propel the

vessel. The main parts of a hybrid system are the

electric motor, internal combustion engine, generator,

battery pack, and control system.

Hybrid systems are widely adopted globally,

enhancing energy efficiency and environmental

friendliness. Their market share is gradually

increasing, with significant applications in passenger

ferries, cargo ships, and special-purpose vessels,

significantly reducing fuel consumption and pollution

emissions. For instance, Norway’s electric ferry MF

Ampere, Japan’s solar hybrid ship Solar Impulse, and

the United States’ electric cruise ship Spirit of the

Elbe all utilize hybrid systems, showcasing their

superiority in improving energy efficiency and

environmental performance. Research indicates that

inland waterway tugboats using hybrid technology

can reduce fuel consumption by 62%. Promoting this

technology can lead to substantial energy savings

(Hayton, 2022).

A significant portion of global trade is conducted

via maritime transport. In 2020, approximately 89%

of goods were transported by sea. The primary factor

driving the growth of maritime transport is the

increase in global trade volume. The substantial

increase in global trade has brought maritime

transport into greater public focus. However, most of

the world's merchant ships still rely on harmful fossil

fuels. Although HFO is the most environmentally

damaging due to its high sulfur content and pollutant

emissions, it remains the most widely used fuel

because of its low cost and high energy density

(Korkmaz et al., 2023).

Governments around the world are vigorously

supporting the development of hybrid systems

through policies and regulations, including research

and development subsidies, tax incentives, and the

establishment of technical standards. IMO is

promoting the green transformation of the global

shipping industry through international cooperation

and technological exchange. For example, the

European Union and Nordic countries provide

financial subsidies and tax incentives, China is

increasing its support for green shipping

technologies, and the United States Maritime

Administration (MARAD) offers research funding

and technical support to encourage the adoption of

hybrid systems. These policies and regulatory support

play a crucial role in driving technological

advancements and market applications (Roy et al.,

2018).

5 EMERGING ENERGY

SOLUTIONS

In the electrification of maritime vehicles and

environmentally friendly shipping, three new

concepts are of significant importance: Cold-Ironing

(CI), shore-to-ship systems (S2S), and isolated

energy systems (IES). CI connect docked ships to port

power facilities, providing electricity and reducing

pollution and noise from internal combustion engine

(ICE) power generation. Cold ironing represents a

significant innovation in the shipping industry’s

move towards electrification, switching to shore

power during berthing to replace diesel engine power

generation (Abu et al., 2023). Although its current

application is limited due to high initial costs and

unclear benefits, the installation of cold ironing

systems will become inevitable with stricter emission

regulations.

S2S systems, also known as cold ironing, link

vessels to the onshore power grid, significantly

cutting emissions and noise by allowing ships to turn

off their diesel generators when docked. Although

currently limited to a few ports due to high power

demands and grid impact, S2S is crucial for shipping

electrification (Frković et al., 2024). To achieve ship

decarbonization, it needs to be paired with renewable

energy sources, making it a promising future solution

despite its current limited use.

Isolated Energy Systems (IES) enhance the

reliability and flexibility of energy supply by

integrating solar power, wind power, diesel

generators, and storage systems, making them

particularly suitable for long voyages away from

ports. Although the initial investment for these

systems is relatively high, the long-term benefits are

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311

significant, including reduced operating costs, lower

fuel consumption, and decreased maintenance

expenses, aligning with increasingly stringent

environmental regulations. Decarbonizing the

maritime industry is a critical research topic, and

electrifying fishing vessels offers a solution to reduce

emissions and operating costs. Achieving this goal in

remote areas with IES poses challenges (Koričan et

al., 2023).

The International Maritime Organization (IMO)

and national governments are actively promoting the

development of these systems through policy support

and financial subsidies, encouraging their widespread

adoption. By replacing traditional internal

combustion engines with these systems, they

effectively reduce pollutant emissions and noise,

while also improving energy efficiency and

environmental performance. These systems are

essential for the green transformation of ports and the

shipping industry, advancing global shipping towards

sustainable development goals.

In the future, as technology matures and becomes

more widely applied, Cold-Ironing System, S2S

systems, and IES will see broader adoption

worldwide, fostering the development of green ports

and environmentally friendly shipping. The

introduction and application of these new concepts

not only enhance the environmental standards of ports

and ships but also provide solid technical support for

achieving sustainable development goals. By

integrating the analysis of battery technology and

hybrid systems, comprehensively exploring these

new concepts will help formulate more

comprehensive environmental strategies, offering

effective solutions for the electrification of future

maritime vehicles.

6 PROSPECT

In contemporary society, the electrification of

maritime vehicles is crucial for achieving low-carbon

and green shipping. Despite facing challenges, the

development potential is immense. This paper has

discussed lithium-ion batteries, fuel cells, and their

advantages and disadvantages, as well as introduced

hybrid systems and emerging concepts. While

lithium-ion batteries offer high energy density and

rapid charging, their cost remains high. Fuel cells are

efficient and emit zero emissions but are

technologically complex and expensive. Hybrid

systems integrate internal combustion engines and

electric motors to enhance efficiency and reduce

environmental impact. Shore power, shore-to-ship,

and isolated energy systems further promote green

shipping. Considering all factors, lithium-ion and fuel

cells hold the most promise for maritime

electrification, requiring a holistic approach to

environmental impact and future development.

Hybrid systems in maritime vehicles integrate the

benefits of lithium-ion batteries and fuel cells,

optimizing energy use through series, parallel, and

combined modes to enhance efficiency and

environmental performance. Policy and regulatory

support have fostered their development. Remote

ocean areas primarily rely on solar and wind energy,

but intermittent issues necessitate energy storage

systems. The development of marine renewable

energy sources create new opportunities for multi-

source energy systems. This paper has reviewed the

fundamentals, current technological status, and future

prospects of these hybrid systems.

7 CONCLUSION

In the face of global climate change and the dwindling

reserves of fossil fuels, the electrification of maritime

vehicles and the pursuit of green shipping are

critically important. This paper has explored the

prospects and challenges of applying lithium-ion

batteries and fuel cells in maritime vehicles. Lithium-

ion batteries offer substantial energy density and

quick charging capabilities, but they are hindered by

high costs and safety issues. Fuel cells are

characterized by efficient energy conversion and zero

emissions, yet they are also costly. Emerging

solutions such as shore power systems, shore-to-ship

systems, and isolated energy systems will make

maritime vehicles more efficient and environmentally

friendly, achieving sustainable development goals.

Government policies and international

cooperation are essential in advancing the application

of these technologies. Looking forward, with

technological advancements, the electrification of

maritime vehicles will witness further breakthroughs,

contributing to the achievement of global sustainable

development goals.

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