Carbon Capture, and Storage Technologies and Representative Cases

Analyses

Jiawen Li

1,*

, Fei Peng

and Xin Zhou

School of Design and Art, Lanzhou University of Technology, Lanzhou, 730000, China

Faculty of Science and Engineering, University of Nottingham Ningbo China, Ningbo, 315100, China

Melbourne School of Design, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, 3052, Australia

Keywords: Carbon, Emissions, Capture, CCS.

Abstract: As carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions increase, carbon capture and storage (CCS) are crucial for achieving

sustainable growth and addressing climate change issues. This article explores the current application status

of CCS technology. The focus is on three aspects: carbon capture, carbon storage, and carbon transportation.

Including the development prospects of technology and the significance of research. And explore the practical

application of CCS technology by introducing application cases of CCS in the United States, Norway, and

Japan. At present, carbon sequestration technology is relatively mature, mainly including marine sequestration,

oil and gas reservoir sequestration, and gas reservoir sequestration. However, due to the low concentration

and pressure of CO2 emissions from power plants, it is difficult to reduce the energy consumption and cost

required for carbon capture. Although many countries are currently engaged in CCS research. However, there

are still many problems such as CO2 leakage during storage, high construction and operation costs, and

immature technological processes. Further research and practice are needed.

1 INTRODUCTION

The challenge of reducing global carbon dioxide

(CO2) emissions involves the collective efforts of

nations across the globe. According to a 2022 report

by the International Energy Agency (IEA), global

CO2 emissions from energy-related sources hit a new

high of 41.3 billion metric tons. With energy

combustion and industrial processes accounting for

89% of total greenhouse gas emissions from energy,

they stand as the leading sources of CO2 emissions.

Global CO2 emissions are trending rising, which

emphasizes how urgently more comprehensive and

effective emission reduction policies are needed. To

address the urgent problem of climate change and

achieve sustainable growth, it is imperative that

carbon emissions be reduced internationally. Interest

in carbon capture and storage (CCS) technologies is

high because of the pressing need to reduce

greenhouse gas emissions, which has emerged as a

major social issue.

Around the world, carbon capture technology are

spreading throughout a number of industries.

Corresponding author

According to BNEF's Carbon Capture, Utilization

and Storage Market Outlook 2022, the world's

capacity to capture CO2 would expand sixfold by

2030, reaching an annual capacity of 279 million tons

(Studies, 2011). The energy and electricity sectors are

the main objectives of carbon capture technologies,

particularly those with substantial CO2 emissions as

thermal power plants and large industrial units. It is

also used in the extraction and processing of oil and

gas, which helps with efforts to reduce emissions. The

use of carbon capture technology has increased due to

the push to mitigate climate change and

environmental concerns. Its application is being

pushed by a number of nations and areas to reduce

carbon emissions and advance sustainable

development. Moreover, several international

organizations and research bodies are deeply

involved in researching and innovating in carbon

capture technology, aiming to enhance its

development and deployment. Advances in

technology and reductions in associated costs are

expected to further popularize carbon capture

technology in the coming years.

246

Li, J., Peng, F. and Zhou, X.

Carbon Capture, and Storage Technologies and Representative Cases Analyses.

DOI: 10.5220/0013906800004914

Paper published under CC license (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0)

In Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on Renewable Energy and Ecosystem (ICREE 2024), pages 246-251

ISBN: 978-989-758-776-4

This paper provides a detailed analysis of CCS

technology, covering its basic principles,

applications, potential in cutting CO2 emissions,

costs and viability, complex technical details, real-

world examples, major challenges to its broad

adoption, and possible approaches to address these

challenges.

2 TECHNICAL PRINCIPLESS

With CCS, CO2 is captured from either point or

dispersed sources and then stored underground for

long-term disposal. Accordingly, CO2 is no longer

emitted into or captured from the atmosphere and is

thus not effective as a greenhouse gas.

2.1 Carbon Capture

Carbon capture technology mainly collects the CO2

emitted by high carbon emitting enterprises and uses

various methods to store it, avoiding the process of

releasing this part of CO2 into the atmosphere. The

main methods are: Pre-combustion capture,Post-

combustion capture and oxy-combustion.

2.1.1 Pre-Combustion Capture

This method first uses oxygen or air to gasify raw

materials such as coal and biomass fuel before

entering the combustion section for reaction. At the

same time, a certain amount of water vapor is

introduced, ultimately forming CO2, CO, H2, N2 and

sulfides. The current high pressure of the mixed

synthesis gas (about 30–50 atmospheres) makes it

considerably simpler to separate CO2. Lastly, before

moving on to the next phase, CO2 is compressed and

delivered using methods such membrane separation,

adsorption, and absorption. The residual gas is

recycled (CO, H2, etc.) or emptied (N2, etc.) (Ju et

al., 2021).

2.1.2 Post-Combustion Capture

It is captured following the combustion phase of the

process, as the name implies. This technique is

frequently applied in power plants, where the

combustion segment is frequently followed by an

absorption and separation mechanism. A solvent is

used to absorb CO2, which is then blown out and

compressed before entering the transportation

pipeline (Paltsev et al., 2021).

2.1.3 0xy-Combustion

By using pure oxygen to burn the fuel, this approach

primarily removes nitrogen and oxygen from the air,

increases the purity and efficiency of CO2

combustion, and decreases the amount of CO and

other byproducts produced. After years of

development, this technology has been widely

applied in various industries, such as the refining

industry, the cement industry, the steel industry, etc.

In conclusion, carbon capture technology controls

CO2 emissions at the source. These collection

technologies can also provide good prerequisites for

the subsequent transportation, storage, and utilization

of CO2.

2.2 Transportation

There are three methods of transporting CO2: tanker,

ship, and pipeline. For large-scale, long-distance

transportation, pipeline transportation is the most

cost-effective method of CO2 transportation.

2.2.1 CO2 Gas Pipeline Transportation

CO2 remains in the gas state in the pipeline, through

compressor to increase pressure, and becomes gas.

The majority of the CO2 in the gas well is in the

supercritical phase, and in order to meet the criteria,

it must be depressurized and throttled.

2.2.2 CO2 Liquid Pipeline Transportation

The CO2 holds the liquid in the pipe and is pumped

to overcome friction and topographic elevation.

However, the operating pressure of the pipeline is

low, and the insulation layer is usually required, so

the input cost is high.

In conclusion, gas transmission is easy to use and

safe, but it is not economical. These two forms of

transportation are appropriate for low throughput and

short-distance travel; liquid transportation is likewise

safe but requires a higher initial investment than gas

transportation.

2.3 Carbon Storage

Carbon storage technology is a step after carbon

capture technology and carbon transportation. Mainly

storing the collected CO2. Avoid its emission into the

atmosphere. The main methods are: Biological

carbon sequestration 、 Marine sequestration and

Geologic Sequestration.

Carbon Capture, and Storage Technologies and Representative Cases Analyses

247

2.3.1 Biological Carbon Sequestration

This method uses the photosynthesis of plants to

convert CO2 into carbohydrates, which are fixed in

the plant body or soil in the form of organic carbon.

The greatest "carbon pool" on earth, the forest serves

as the foundation of the terrestrial ecosystem and is

crucial in controlling the climate and reducing global

warming. It is a method of carbon sequestration with

the lowest cost and fewest side effects. It is the most

promising solution to global warming.

2.3.2 Marine Sequestration

There are two main types of marine sequestration:

dissolution type and lake type. Dissolved Marine

sequestration is the transport of CO2 to the deep sea,

allowing CO2 to decompose naturally and become

part of the natural carbon cycle. Lake-type Marine

sequestration means that CO2 is sent into the deep sea

3,000 meters underground, because the density of sea

water is less than the density of CO2, so it will

become liquid at the bottom of the sea, becoming a

CO2 Lake, which delays the process of CO2

decomposition into the environment.

2.3.3 Geologic Sequestration

One way to store carbon is to inject CO2 into a

sandstone layer about 200 meters, which called

Utsira. The rock stratum does not contain any

commercial value like oil or gas, it is simply filled

with salt water. Due to buoyancy effect, the injected

CO2 moves from the injected location and eventually

collects under the overburden (Torp and Gale, 2004).

Utsira sandstone has high porosity and permeability.

Therefore, CO2 can quickly migrate sideways and up

through the rock layer, displacing water between the

grains. Many sandstone's Bunter domes have faults,

but if they are well sealed, they can form structural

traps that can hold and store large amounts of CO2

(Williams et al., 2013). In rock stratum containing salt

water, the dissolution of CO2 is a key factor. The

solubility of CO2 in salt water is as high as 53 kg/m3,

so the dissolution of CO2 also makes an important

contribution to carbon storage. According to

estimates, Utsira could be filled with about 600

billion CO2, which is equivalent to the total CO2

produced by humans in 20 years.

In conclusion, the captured and collected CO2 can

be stored and utilized. The storage of CO2 mainly

relies on the absorption of CO2 by plant

photosynthesis and the sequestration of CO2 to the

seabed or underground. It is not yet known whether

the CO stored on the seabed and underground will

have an impact on the soil and marine environment.

Further research and practice are needed.

3 THE CASES FOR CCS

TECHNOLOGIES

Many developed and developing countries have

actively explored and attempted carbon capture

technologies. However, the national conditions and

forms of carbon emissions vary among countries.

Therefore, different countries have different

approaches to CCS. These countries are actively

exploring ways to capture, transport, and store

carbon. To achieve economic maximization while

reducing carbon emissions. However, many

countries' explorations are based on theoretical

aspects and require relevant practice to prove their

feasibility. Here are three cases of CCS in different

countries to understand the practice and application

of CCS technology from three different regions: the

United States, Europe, and Asia.

3.1 The United States

The Petra Nova project in Texas serves as a

prominent demonstration project of CCS in the

United States. Launched as a collaboration between

NRG Energy and JX Nippon Oil & Gas Exploration

in operation in January 2010, the Petra Nova CCS

Project is the only two commercial-scale coal-fired

power plants which deploy CCS technology in the

world. The project uses a well-established carbon

capture technology, jointly developed by Mitsubishi

Heavy Industries, Ltd. (MHI) and the Kansai Electric

Power Co. The technology uses an advanced solvent

which effectively absorbs and releases CO2. After

capture, CO2 will be compressed and dried, and then

transported through an 80 miles pipeline to Hilcorp's

West Ranch oil field near Vanderbilt, Texas. Here,

the CO2 is used for enhanced oil recovery (EOR) and

finally sequestered (Office of Fossil Energy and

Carbon Management, 2020).

The project is specifically targeting post-

combustion carbon capture, a solution allowing

separation of CO2 from domestic exhaust gases after

fossil fuel combustion. This method is particularly

useful as it allows vegetation to be restored existing

ones and does not require to change their operational

fundamentals. The Petra Nova system captures more

than 1.6 million tons of CO2 per year, making it the

world's largest project linked to a power plant.

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3.2 Norway

Norway's Sleipner project is in the middle of the

North Sea，and near the border line between United

Kingdom and Norway (Torp and Gale, 2004). This

project is the world's first commercial CO2 injection

project, and it demonstrates that CO2 capture and

storage is an effective way to mitigate climate change.

Unlike other oil fields, which exhaust extracted

CO2 directly into the atmosphere, Sleipner project

will inject extracted CO2 underground. Then injected

through a separate well into an aquifer more than

1,000 meters below the seabed (Kongsjorden and

Torp, 1997). Underground space in the European

Union and Norway can store about 80 billion tons of

CO2, which is about 1.4 times the total CO2 that has

accumulated in the atmosphere since the industrial

era. The Wells were designed to cross through the

natural fractures and may have hydraulic stimulation

of the fractures in the reservoir to help capture more

CO2 (Eiken et al., 2011). It has four platforms, and

the Sleipner Vest field is used as a facility for CCS

which is the first offshore CCS plant in the world.

Since the project began several years ago, the

accumulation of pressure in the reservoir has been

small and the pressure is slightly higher than that of

hydrostatic pressure.

3.3 Japan

CCS plays a crucial role in Japan's energy strategy.

The Japanese government requires the introduction of

CCS technology to collect and store CO2 generated

by thermal power generation. And achieve carbon

neutrality before 2050. For CCS, efforts should be

made to design a roadmap for technology

development, cost reduction, and the development of

suitable sites. Unlike other countries, the Japanese

government is also committed to conducting

demonstration tests on the transportation of liquid

CO2 by ships. And optimize the network between

CO2 emission sources, recycling, and storage

facilities (Abe et al., 2013).

The geographical CO2 storage potential in Japan's

coastal areas is significant, with approximately

150,240 billion tons. The CO2 storage capacity in

water bodies with a depth of less than 200 meters can

reach 146 billion tons. The CO2 storage capacity in

water bodies with depths of 200-1000 meters can

reach 90 billion tons. This storage capacity is very

considerable.

The challenge for Japan to promote the

development of CCS technology lies in the

transportation of CO2. The industrial areas with high

CO2 emissions in Japan are mainly located in the

coastal areas on the Pacific side. The areas suitable

for storing CO2 are mainly located on the side of the

Sea of Japan. The distance between the two is too

long and is not suitable for pipeline transportation.

Therefore, Japan plans to use ships for the

transportation of liquid CO2. Since no country has

previously implemented the transportation of

liquefied CO2 through ships at low temperatures and

pressures. Therefore, Japan took the lead in

demonstrating this practice (Baskoro et al., 2022).

4 TECHNICAL BARRIERS AND

CHALLENGES

CCS technology, a key strategy in the fight against

climate change, aims to capture CO2 emissions from

sources like power plants and industrial facilities

before they reach the atmosphere, and then store them

underground in geological formations. While CCS

offers a promising path to reduce greenhouse gas

emissions and mitigate global warming significantly,

there are still some challenges, which span a variety

of domains, affecting the scalability and effectiveness

of CCS as a comprehensive solution to climate

change.

One of the primary limitations of CCS technology

lies in its capture efficiency and the energy required

for the capture process. Current CCS technologies

cannot capture 100% of the CO2 from power plants

and industrial sources, which leave a substantial

amount of emissions unaddressed (Shen et al., 2022).

Even International Energy Agency, an active

supporter for carbon reduction, doubts the

effectiveness and the large-scale of viability of CCS.

Moreover, the process of capturing, compressing,

transporting, and storing CO2 is energy-intensive,

requiring a substantial amount of the energy produced

by the plants it aims to make cleaner. Davoodi et

al.argued that a coal power plant with CCS devices

would consume 25% more energy for operation

(Davoodi et al., 2023). Given that extra energy

requirement and potential leakage downstream, it

cannot be proved that all CO2 is captured. Both the

capture efficiency and additional energy needs bring

significant challenges for CCS technology and

doubters may view that unreliable.

In practice, high initial investment and more

operating costs is another important factor

influencing its massive deployment. Such cost can

arise from capture equipment, transportation

infrastructure, and storage site development and

Carbon Capture, and Storage Technologies and Representative Cases Analyses

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operation. For example, the power generation costs

for a coal power plant with carbon capture facilities

would rise by an additional $20 to $100 per ton,

which diminishes the benefits derived from reducing

emissions and influences the commercial viability of

CCS demonstration projects (Burger et al., 2024). In

addition, extra expenses associated with enhanced

transportation and storage requirements pose

important constraints for the use of CCS. Pipeline

transportation is currently regarded as the safest and

the most effective way of CO2 transportation (Rashid

et al., 2024). Pipelines transporting CO2 have higher

standards for corrosion resistance, which increases

the procurement costs and operation and maintenance

costs and significantly influences the whole CCS

value chain. The storage of CO2, as an important

stage, also incurs high cost as well as stringent safety

requirements (Ratanpara et al., 2023). Three main

carbon storage ways are salt water layer storage, oil

and gas layer storage and gas layer storage. The first

two storage methods require necessary infrastructure

development, including the construction of injection

wells, surface facilities for monitoring and regulation,

and possibly pipelines leading to the storage site

(Ratanpara et al., 2023). The engineering and material

costs associated with the construction of these

facilities are considerable. While the gas layer storage

is still in early stage of development, which requires

substantial funding for further research (Yusuf and

Ibrahim, 2023).

The aim of CCS is to reduce environmental

impacts and mitigate climate change by decreasing

atmospheric CO2 levels, but risks associated with the

technology are not fully understood and this occurs

within the whole process of CCS. For example, the

construction and operation of carbon capture facilities

can have environmental repercussions and pose risks

to health and safety due to the compression of CO2.

This process also results in the production of carbon

oxides, SO2, and other chemicals. Besides, the

storage of CO2 may significantly influence local

climates, destroy regional ecologies, and pollute

groundwater. The injection of CO2 into geological

formations evens trigger seismic activity in some

areas. The safety and sustainability of underground

CO2 storage is crucial for the application of CCS

(Sun et al. 2018).

5 CONCLUSION

This article introduces CCS technology in detail

focusing on three aspects: carbon capture, carbon

storage and transport. Including the development

prospect of technology and the significance of

research. Through introducing the cases of CCS

applications in the United States, Norway and Japan

to study deeper about CCS technology. CCS is widely

recognized as a key way to mitigate global warming

and makes an important contribution. CCS consists of

two components: carbon capture and carbon storage.

Carbon capture is divided into pre-combustion

capture, post-combustion capture and oxygen-rich

combustion capture. However, due to the lower

concentration and pressure of CO2 emitted by power

plants, the energy consumption and cost of either

technology are difficult to reduce. The technology of

carbon sequestration is relatively mature, mainly

including Marine sequestration, oil and gas reservoir

sequestration and gas reservoir sequestration. Japan

ships CO2 captured, recycled and liquefied from a

power plant in Kyoto to a storage site near Hokkaido.

The High Temperature DAC process captures CO2

directly from the air. Norway's Sleipner inject CO2

into a sandstone layer about 200 meters, which called

Utsira. Petra Nova's system inject carbon CO2into the

oil field for EOR, enhancing oil recovery while

ensuring the CO2 is securely stored underground. In

addition, by measuring existing technologies in

certain countries, we can use these data to identify

possible potential ways to improve CCS technology

and adjust for the shortcomings of current

technology. Although many countries are now

engaged in CCS research, there are still many

problems to be solved and many technical problems

have not been broken through.

AUTHORS CONTRIBUTION

All the authors contributed equally and their names

were listed in alphabetical order.

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