The Impact of Compressed Air Storage Technology on the

Environment During a Lifecycle

Yuankun Li

School of Forestry, Southwest Forestry University, Kunming, Yunnan Province, 650051, China

Keywords: Compressed Air Energy Storage, Lifecycle, Pollution.

Abstract: Compressed Air Energy Storage (CAES) technology offers an effective method for energy storage during

periods of low demand by utilizing underground mines to store compressed air, which is then released when

energy is needed. As new energy technologies rapidly advance and the integration of renewable energy

sources such as wind and solar power into the power grid increases, the adoption of CAES has become more

widespread. This technology stands out due to its minimal physical space requirements, extensive load

capacity range, cost-effectiveness, and low operational and maintenance costs. However, for strategic

planning, it is critical to perform a comprehensive lifetime evaluation of environmental contaminants

associated with CAES. But the construction and maintenance activities of CAES systems can lead to

significant environmental degradation, including solid waste, exhaust gas, wastewater pollution, and land

destruction. Furthermore, the process of demolishing structures generates waste and pollutants, with dust and

noise pollution present in multiple phases. These environmental impacts present substantial challenges to the

sustainable deployment of CAES technology. This paper explores the dual nature of CAES, highlighting both

its advantages and its environmental concerns. We conduct a thorough analysis of the lifecycle environmental

impacts of CAES systems, focusing on pollution and resource depletion during construction, operation,

maintenance, and demolition. Moreover, we propose some potential solutions to mitigate these environmental

impacts, emphasizing the need for sustainable construction practices, advanced pollution control technologies,

and efficient resource management. By addressing these issues, CAES can be optimized to support the

growing demand for renewable energy storage while minimizing its ecological footprint.

1 INTRODUCTION

CAES is a promising technology for large-scale

energy storage. It has the potential to advance the

development of renewable energy and enhance

system flexibility. Renewable energy is anticipated to

have a significant impact on energy transformation in

the future. However, during its implementation, it is

critical to consider and address the potential

environmental consequences. Appropriate measures

for environmental protection should be implemented.

The current research on the environmental effects of

CAES systems is insufficient and requires more

extensive investigation. This text presents a concise

overview of the environmental impact of compressed

air energy storage over its entire life cycle. It also

offers recommendations for appropriate ways to

address these impacts.

2 POLLUTION DURING

CONSTRUCTION

During the preliminary phase of the CAES system, a

significant amount of infrastructure must be prepared

as shown in the table 1.

Table 1 The CAES system largely consists of the following

components

Com

onents Raw materials

Com

resso

Stainless allo

Gas storage tank Carbon steel or alloy

steel

Pipes and fittings Stainless steel or

com

osite materials

Heat exchan

Stainless allo

Sealing element Rubbe

Control com

onents Plastic Ceramic

Based on the information provided, creating a

compressed air energy storage system requires a

Li, Y.

The Impact of Compressed Air Storage Technology on the Environment During a Lifecycle.

DOI: 10.5220/0013875200004914

Paper published under CC license (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0)

In Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on Renewable Energy and Ecosystem (ICREE 2024), pages 197-203

ISBN: 978-989-758-776-4

197

substantial number of raw materials, with various

alloys being the most important. Alloys commonly

use components such as carbon, manganese, silicon,

nickel, and others to enhance their hardness,

corrosion resistance, and other properties. The

following contaminants may be present during the

alloy formation.

2.1 Solid Waste

2.1.1 Smelting Slag

The smelting of alloys produces a significant quantity

of smelting slag, primarily made up of oxides and

sulfides. Some smelting slag may include large

quantities of heavy metals and radioactive elements.

For starters, the disposal and storage of a large

amount of slag not only occupy a lot of lands but also

cause serious environmental problems (Kong et al,

2023). Furthermore, waste residue contributes to soil

erosion, which leads to disasters like mudslides.

Furthermore, when acidic rainwater meets acidic

wastewater containing a range of heavy metal

components found in smelting slag, it can

contaminate surrounding water bodies, causing

environmental deterioration. Ultimately, failure to

efficiently recover smelting slag may result in the

waste of important resources.

2.1.2 Coatings

Alloy goods sometimes require surface plating or

coating treatment, which can eventually delaminate

with use. Electroplating sludge refers to the solid

waste produced during the treatment of electroplating

wastewater. This waste contains heavy metal

components that exhibit properties such as high

resistance to heat, a strong capacity to move, and

resistance to biodegradation. Hence, the potential for

heavy metals to leach from electroplating sludge is

considerable, leading to rapid accumulation within

the food chain and presenting a significant

environmental hazard (Shi & Li, 2024).

2.2 Waste Gas

Exhaust gas emissions during smelting and casting

processes Only a few enterprises have extensive

waste gas collection and treatment systems in place

for alloy metal smelting and casting. Most enterprises

use induced draft fans or directly discharge gases,

which frequently contain high levels of metal dust,

nitrogen oxides, and sulfur oxides, posing a

considerable risk to the local air environment (Zhou,

2005).

2.2.1 Exhaust Gas Emissions During

Surface Treatment

Surface treatment of alloy products involves various

processes such as anodizing, spray painting, and

electroplating. These processes produce acid mist and

exhaust gas, both of which contain heavy metal-

containing contaminants. Failure to efficiently collect

and handle these exhaust gases can have a negative

impact on operators' health and cause environmental

hazards such as acid rain and photochemical smoke

(Zhang, 2019).

2.2.2 Emissions Produced During the

Welding and Cutting Processes

The laser cutting process generates a substantial

amount of exhaust gas, mainly consisting of nitrogen

oxides, volatile organic compounds, and particle

debris. Nitrogen oxides, specifically nitrogen dioxide

and nitric oxide, are the main gaseous pollutants

produced during laser cutting. These pollutants have

the potential to significantly pollute the atmosphere.

Not effective in improving air quality.

2.3 Wastewater

2.3.1 Acidic Wastewater Generated During

the Smelting and Refining of Raw

Materials

Waste acid and workpiece-washing water combine to

form acidic wastewater. It contains a substantial

amount of free acid, metal ions, and extremely acidic

compounds like sulfuric acid and hydrochloric acid.

Unaddressed direct discharge can disrupt the pH

balance of water bodies, causing acidification and

hurting aquatic biodiversity. Furthermore, acidic

wastewater is highly corrosive and can deteriorate

discharge pipelines, potentially leading to soil

infiltration and subsequent soil acidification. The

accidental introduction of acidic wastewater into

drinking water sources can pose a serious risk to

human health (Zheng & Zhang, 2019).

2.3.2 Heavy Metal-Containing Wastewater

Generated During Aluminum Alloy

Production

Aluminum alloy pre-treatment involves a variety of

techniques, such as oil removal, coloring,

neutralization, and sealing. These processes use

ICREE 2024 - International Conference on Renewable Energy and Ecosystem

198

corrosive liquids as raw materials, including sulfuric

acid, nitric acid, and sodium hydroxide. Typically,

when the anodizing treatment is completed, more

chemicals enter the tank of the machinery used to

wash the overflow water (Zhang, 2019).

When heavy metals, such as lead, cadmium, and

mercury, enter water bodies, they can contribute to

ecological issues such as eutrophication and water

pollution, endangering aquatic creatures.

Simultaneously, large levels of heavy metal

contamination can have a negative impact on

businesses such as agriculture and fishing, putting a

considerable strain on both social and economic

advancement.

2.3.3 Oil-Containing Wastewater Generated

During Equipment Cooling and

Cleaning Procedures

The process of cooling equipment will generate a

substantial amount of effluent. The equipment

cleaning process generates a significant amount of

oily effluent. When released into the water, it forms a

film of oil on the surface, obstructing the exchange of

oxygen and light. This will have a severe impact on

aquatic plant photosynthesis while also disrupting the

aquaculture industry, resulting in the death of

organisms or stunted growth and development.

Certain oily wastewater is flammable and can cause

fires.

2.4 Terrestrial Devastation

While the CAES systems and related amenities were

constructed, land development is unavoidable. Land

use has a wide range of environmental effects, which

are most visible in the following areas.

2.4.1 Environmental Degradation

Zones designated for economic development, such as

suburban areas, often host CAES systems. Land

overexploitation degrades the natural biological

environment, resulting in the loss of plant and animal

habitats. The size of natural landscapes, including

green spaces and wetlands, is constantly shrinking.

Furthermore, certain innovations have ravaged the

natural settings in which rare and endangered animals

live.

2.4.2 Effects on the Landscape

The installation of cable infrastructure to support the

CAES system has significantly altered the land's

natural form and look. Impractical building and

facility designs have had a negative impact on the

surrounding landscape, causing a loss of diversity,

coherence, and identity. Such alterations often bring

about negative consequences like habitat loss, species

decline, soil erosion, and disruption of ecosystem

processes (Hajibayov, 2017).

3 ISSUES ARISING AFTER

COMPLETING AND

IMPLEMENTING THE CAES

SYSTEM

3.1 Resource Waste

In a CAES system, power transfer is achieved by first

generating high-pressure air using a compressor and

then storing it in a storage tank. An expander must be

employed to utilize the high-pressure air in the

storage tank for performing external tasks (Sun,

2015). The increase in power is derived from the

utilization of compressed air. There is a risk of energy

storage material leakage in CAES systems, where

high-pressure air is the principal energy storage

medium. Following high-pressure air leaks, a variety

of dangers can arise, Leakage can result in significant

energy loss, leading to resource waste and decreased

application efficiency.

3.2 Concerns Regarding Energy Usage

and Emissions from CAES

Even though fossil fuel power generation is the

primary source of electricity in the grid, the CAES

system emits indirect carbon emissions during

charging. The emissions during the whole lifecycle

are mostly influenced by the operational phase,

particularly during the initiation of energy storage

systems and the continued need for alternative power

sources during system operation. Given the

variability in operational efficiency of CAES

systems, it is necessary to conduct assessments of

carbon consumption (Geng et al, 2022). In energy

consumption assessments, the CAES technique

necessitates the inclusion of compression equipment,

electronic control systems, and other power-

consuming devices.

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4 POLLUTION PRODUCED

DURING CAES SYSTEM

MAINTENANCE AND UPKEEP

4.1 Resource Allocation

The expected operational lifespan of CAES systems

varies from 20 to 40 years, contingent upon

subsequent maintenance and management.

Throughout the subsequent management procedure,

the following pollutants may be present, as shown in

table 2.

Table 2 Vulnerable parts required for CAES equipment

operation

Compressor unit Compressor impeller seals and

earin

Bearings heat

exchange

ment

Heat exchanger tube bundle,

sealing ring and valve

Electrical

control s

ste

Control board, sensors and relays.

Producing new components releases pollutants,

while disposing of items can contribute to the

environmental burden. Inadequate management can

lead to the release of pollutants and the excessive use

of resources.

4.2 Contamination Caused by

Chemicals

The expected operational lifespan of CAES systems

varies from 20 to 40 years, contingent upon

subsequent maintenance and management.

Throughout the subsequent management procedure,

the following pollutants may be present.

4.2.1 Oil Pollution

CAES systems commonly utilize synthetic base oil or

mineral oil as its lubricant. Mineral oil can get

contaminated with a range of hazardous substances,

such as heavy metals, molecules from the benzene

family, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. These

substances require expert gathering and processing,

and any leakage can increase ecological

susceptibility. When repairing electrical equipment in

the CAES system, several harmful compounds, such

as insulating oil, are used. Additionally, there is the

concern of combustibility.

4.2.2 Pollution Caused by Toxic Substances

Regular maintenance of heat exchange equipment

involves the use of chemical cleaning agents that

often contain acidic and alkaline substances, such as

hydrochloric acid and sodium hydroxide.

Furthermore, it is possible that the gas storage tank is

deteriorating and necessitates anti-corrosion

treatment. The anti-corrosion coating is composed of

a substantial amount of heavy metals and organic

solvents, which pose environmental risks.

5 POLLUTION FROM THE

DISMANTLING OF THE CAES

SYSTEM

At present, the implementation of the CAES system

is not widespread, and there are no instances of

disassembly that adhere to the CAES lifecycle.

During the time of the CAES system, the following

environmental deterioration may occur. The

dismantling of industrial facilities will produce a

substantial quantity of construction debris. This

comprises scrap steel and concrete, metal elements,

and spent lubricating oil and coolant. Inadequate

management not only damages the local scenery, but

it also fosters the growth of bacteria and viruses,

affecting the cleanliness of the surrounding

environment.

6 POLLUTION IS PREVALENT

AT SEVERAL STAGES

Apart from the ambient contamination, there are

specific pollutants that are widespread during certain

stages of the CAES lifecycle.

6.1 The Presence of Dust Particles

Blasting is employed in the construction process to

extract raw materials, while the crushing, screening,

and grinding of ores are significant contributors to

dust pollution. During land development, the CAES

system necessitates the use of specialized containers

to hold compressed air at high pressures. This process

may involve construction activities in mines or salt

caverns, leading to the generation of a significant

amount of non-dispersible dust (Liang, 2024). Dust is

generated because of several activities, such as the

functioning of the air filtering device, wear in the

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lubrication system, deposition in storage tanks,

equipment maintenance, pipeline cleaning, material

replacement, and dismantling processes.

Furthermore, the presence of dust is inevitable during

the loading and transportation. Dust pollution can

lead to the following problems

6.1.1 Declining Air Quality

An escalation in dust emissions leads to a

corresponding rise in the concentration of suspended

particulate matter in the atmosphere. Elevated

concentrations of particulate matter can hinder

visibility, obstruct sunlight, and disturb individuals'

daily activities and professional endeavors. Dust

originating from different sources comprises a wide

range of chemical constituents, which have the

potential to influence the composition of pollutants

present in the atmosphere. Certain toxic heavy metals

or organic compounds can adhere to dust particles

and disperse throughout the atmosphere. Dust

particles can disperse and take in light, which can

impact the optical properties of the atmosphere. This

will affect the intensity of sunlight, visibility, and

meteorological conditions, resulting in decreased

visibility and less intense sunlight.

6.1.2 Ecological System Destruction Leading

to Climate Change

Dust deposition can modify the growth of flora,

disturb animal habitats, and lead to an imbalance in

the ecosystem, resulting in a decrease in biodiversity.

Certain anthropogenic emissions of fine particulate

matter can potentially affect the production of cloud

condensation nuclei, hence impacting local climate.

Certain noxious heavy metals can increase in

concentration and build up within the environment by

means of the food chain.

6.2 Environmental Noise

Contamination

At each of the above steps, noise is consistently

produced, and the construction of mechanical

equipment in each phase generates extra noise. For

the impact of animals, including damage to wildlife

physical wellbeing, vital survival mechanisms, social

and reproductive processes, and habitat continuity

(Teff-Seker et al, 2022). Under extreme conditions, it

might lead to a decrease in the population of animals.

Moreover, plant growth can be adversely affected by

high-intensity noise, leading to decreased

photosynthetic efficiency and disruption of normal

plant development. In general, environmental

contamination exhibits complex interdependencies,

with various forms of pollution in the environment

being interconnected. Environmental pollution often

worsens the severity of major environmental

problems

7 SUGGESTION

To address the aforementioned concerns, the

following section will provide a concise summary and

solutions.

7.1 Streamlining Industrial Equipment

Connections to Improve

Performance

The emphasis should be on using auxiliary goods that

are nontoxic, benign, or have little toxicity or damage.

Utilizing cutting-edge industrial technologies and

equipment to improve resource efficiency and reduce

polluting emissions. Install treatment facilities for

wastewater, exhaust gas, solid waste, and chemical

pollutants that meet discharge standards. Consistently

maintain and improve governance equipment to

ensure that processing efficiency meets the required

criteria.

7.2 Maximizing Land Utilization

The CAES system can use defunct subsurface mines

or salt caverns to store energy, allowing for the

recycling of existing resources while reducing the

requirement for further land use. Additional research

can be conducted on the development and application

of subsurface energy storage regions in CAES to

increase energy storage capacity per unit area while

decreasing land use intensity.

7.3 Regulation of Carbon Emissions

The CAES system does not directly release fossil

fuels; rather, the quantity of carbon emissions it

creates is ultimately determined by the source of the

electricity used. CAES can be combined with

renewable energy sources such as wind and solar to

achieve carbon-free operation. Carbon capture and

storage technology can be used in governance to

address a small portion of the inevitable carbon

emissions. The CAES system effectively reduces

carbon emissions through processes such as

absorption, separation, compression, and

The Impact of Compressed Air Storage Technology on the Environment During a Lifecycle

201

underground storage, resulting in near-zero

emissions.

7.4 Measures to Reduce Noise Pollution

Initially, a well-planned site location for the CAES

system, located away from areas sensitive to noise,

such as residential areas, can considerably reduce the

negative effects on the surrounding environment. To

control the noise level of equipment, select

appropriate equipment and prioritize utilizing

equipment that generates less noise. Measures such as

placing sound insulation covers and silencers on the

equipment casing and base can also help to lessen the

noise impact.

7.5 Measures to Reduce Dust Pollution

During the land development and demolition phases,

materials with low dust emissions, such as rock salt,

are used to reduce dust creation. To prevent dust

particles from dispersing, apply water at regular

intervals. During the operational phase, precise

control techniques are used to effectively encapsulate

dust-producing machinery such as compressors and

turbines, preventing dust from escaping. Perform

frequent inspections and maintenance to ensure that

all enclosed systems remain airtight. Implement

extremely effective dust collection systems at dust-

producing places, such as bag filters, scraper dust

collectors, and other appropriate equipment. To

reduce dust dispersion, trees and plants should be

planted around the factory and on either side of the

road.

7.6 Waste Management

To reduce waste production, implement a CAES

equipment recycling system, as well as disassemble

and recycle used equipment. Implement a consistent

strategy for solid waste and chemical management

throughout the CAES system's development and

operation, ensuring proper disposal of all waste

categories.

8 CONCLUSION

More specifically, CAES emits zero direct

greenhouse gas emissions when in operation, with

only a tiny amount of indirect emissions from the

power grid. Nonetheless, the extraction and

processing of materials such as aluminum alloys

would cause significant pollution during the stages of

extracting raw materials and producing equipment.

Furthermore, the development and maintenance of

CAES systems will necessitate a certain number of

resources and electricity. In order to lessen the

ecological imprint of CAES, future research should

focus on the following aspects. The primary objective

is to develope novel lightweight materials for gas

storage tanks to reduce resource utilization in

equipment construction. The second objective

involves improving the energy conversion efficiency

of the CAES system by optimizing its design and

operation mode and closely integrate the CAES

system with renewable energy sources to reduce grid

emissions. The final objective is to investigate the

feasibility of using waste heat in CAES systems to

improve overall energy efficiency, and improve the

environmental impact evaluation and monitoring of

the CAES system during its whole lifecycle.

Implementing the procedures will increase the

environmental sustainability of CAES technology,

contributing significantly to sustainable

development.

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