Ecological Migration and Cultural Preservation: A Comparative

Study of the Tuvan and Evenki Indigenous Groups in China

Andrew Li

Tsinghua International School, Zhongguancun North Rd. Haidian, Beijing 100084 People's Republic of China

Keywords: Ecological Migration, Cultural Preservation, Displacement, Tuvan, Evenki.

Abstract: Ecological migration driven by climate change, resource depletion, and environmental degradation has

become a pressing global issue, posing severe challenges to the cultural traditions and identities of indigenous

communities. This research focuses on the displacement of local residents due to the establishment of

protected areas, using two indigenous groups in China—the Tuvan and the Evenki—as case studies. Through

comparative analysis, it explores the impact of protected area development on their ecological migration and

cultural heritage. The settled Tuvan community faced relocation due to the development of a natural park,

disrupting their farming and herding practices. However, the boom in tourism provided new economic

opportunities, allowing them to adapt while striving to protect their cultural identity. In contrast, the nomadic

Evenki faced an existential threat to their way of life, as deforestation, mining, and hunting restrictions within

nature reserves severely limited their traditional subsistence methods and mobility. The case studies highlight

the different challenges and coping strategies of settled and nomadic indigenous groups, as well as the

government's varying approaches to economic development, biodiversity conservation, and cultural

preservation. While the Tuvan actively embraced tourism, the Evenki struggled to maintain their identity amid

strict environmental policies. This research delves into the complex relationship between ecological migration,

protected area development, and indigenous cultural heritage, providing policy recommendations for

balancing these intersecting priorities. It emphasizes the need for meaningful engagement with indigenous

communities, co-developed plans, and holistic solutions that reconcile environmental, economic, and cultural

sustainability goals.

1 INTRODUCTION

In recent years, ecological migration has become an

increasingly prominent global issue. Due to climate

change, resource depletion, and environmental

degradation, many communities have been forced to

leave their traditional homelands and migrate to new

habitats. This forced ecological migration not only

impacts people's livelihoods and lifestyles, but also

poses a severe challenge to their cultural traditions

and identity. China's policy approach to ecological

migration appears to be an attempt to address two

objectives concurrently: promoting rural

development and restoring the eco-environment,

through a single policy initiative (Li et al., 2014).

This research focuses on a special but

increasingly common situation in ecological

migration: the displacement of local residents for the

establishment of protected areas. The creation of

protected areas aims to protect endangered species

and their habitats, as well as maintain biodiversity.

However, this often directly conflicts with the

subsistence rights of indigenous peoples. On one

hand, protected areas bring economic opportunities

and infrastructure development to local communities;

on the other hand, being forced to leave their

homeland has a tremendous impact on the residents'

cultural identity and way of life.

Using two indigenous ethnic groups in China-the

Tuvan and the Evenki-as case studies, this paper

explores the impact of protected area development on

their ecological migration and culture. Although

geographically close, the two groups face different

challenges and coping strategies due to their different

lifestyles. Through comparative analysis, this

research aims to delve into the complex relationship

between ecological migration, protected area

development, and indigenous cultural heritage, and to

provide policy recommendations for the future.

Li, A.

Ecological Migration and Cultural Preservation: A Comparative Study of the Tuvan and Evenki Indigenous Groups in China.

DOI: 10.5220/0013841200004914

Paper published under CC license (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0)

In Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on Renewable Energy and Ecosystem (ICREE 2024), pages 5-9

ISBN: 978-989-758-776-4

2 THE TUVAN

The Tuvan is a settled ethnic group, mainly engaged

in farming and animal husbandry. They have their

own religion that is closely attached to nature, with

the Shaman taking a fundamental role of connecting

the people and the spirits. even in the present day, the

Tuvan people firmly believe in the ability of their

shamans to mete out punishment for actions that show

ingratitude towards nature (Amalbekova and

Shagimgereyeva, 2023). They have lived for

generations in villages and have a deep emotional

attachment to the local land and natural resources.

Tuvan are one of the many extremely small ethnic

populations residing within China, who are striving to

preserve their distinct identity despite being

surrounded by the vastly dominant Han Chinese

populace as well as the considerable demographic

influences of Kazakh and Mongolian communities

(Mawkaunli, 2001). In recent years, with the

government ’ s efforts to develop tourism, some

Tuvan villages have been incorporated into nature

reserves, forcing many residents to relocate.

During the 20th century, to revive the economy

and attract tourism investment, the Chinese

government launched a series of tourism

development projects, including the Bai Ha Ba

Natural Park along the Ha Ba River. The park

encompasses not only cultural landscapes like

prehistoric rock art sites but also the traditional

residential areas of the Tuvan. To establish the scenic

area, the government forced local villagers to relocate

to new residential areas outside the river valley.

This move dealt a heavy blow to the Tuvan

community. On one hand, they had a profound

emotional bond with the villages and lands where

their ancestors had lived for hundreds of years, and

being forced to leave their homes caused them great

spiritual trauma. Conversely, their original farming

and herding practices were also severely disrupted,

and the villagers had to adapt to the new living

environment. In addition, they confront an immense

challenge in utilizing and sustaining their native

language, as the Chinese government does not

officially acknowledge them as one of the recognized

ethnic nationalities within the People's Republic of

China (Mawkaunli, 2001).

However, with the boom of the tourism industry,

a large number of tourists began flocking to the Ha

Ba River area, bringing new economic opportunities

to the Tuvan community. Some Tuvan started

working in the tourism service industry, earning

income by selling handicrafts, performing traditional

songs and dances, and other means-a concept known

as ‘culture brokering’, where the Tuvan, the ‘hosts’,

use various methods to allow the tourists, the ‘guests’,

to better understand their culture (Yang, Ryan and

Zhang, 2014). Meanwhile, the local government also

invested in improving infrastructure such as roads,

water supply, and electricity, improving the living

conditions of the residents.

Nevertheless, tourism development has also had

some negative impacts on the Tuvan's cultural

identity and way of life. Turning Tuvan villages into

"living fossil" tourist attractions has led to the

commodification and objectification of their culture,

weakening its vitality. Additionally, the influx of

outsiders has exacerbated cultural clashes,

threatening the transmission of the Tuvan’s language,

customs, and values. It is an unfortunate fact that the

traditional Tuvan culture is currently undergoing an

irreversible decline and gradual elimination of certain

artistic expressions and practices. Activities like

manufacturing saddles, bridles, utensils, traditional

attire and footwear are all fading away, as well as the

disappearance of certain folklore genres and etiquette

traditions (Kuzhuget, 2018).

Overall, tourism development in the Ha Ba River

area has had a double-edged impact on the Tuvan

community. On one hand, it has provided residents

with new sources of income and improved living

environments; on the other hand, being forced to

leave their homes and the commodification of their

culture have posed challenges and impacts to their

traditional way of life and identity. Despite this, the

Tuvan have relatively adapted to these changes,

actively embracing tourism development while also

striving to protect their culture.

3 THE EVENKI

The Evenki is a nomadic ethnic group, mainly living

by hunting, fishing, and reindeer herding. They have

roamed for generations in the forest regions of

northeastern Siberia and northeastern China, living in

harmony with nature. Over the course of coexisting

harmoniously with the natural environment for an

extended period, the Evenki people have formulated

an intricate system of beliefs that governs their

interactions with nature. At the core of their cultural

traditions lies the practice of "Shamanism", similar to

that of the Tuvan, which facilitates communication

between humans and spiritual entities with the

objective of garnering their goodwill, inspiring

favourable outcomes, and counteracting detrimental

occurrences (Zamaraeva et al., 2019). However, in

recent years, due to forest resource exploitation and

the establishment of protected areas, the Evenki’s

traditional territories have been continuously

encroached upon, and the space for reindeer herding

has become increasingly limited, severely threatening

ICREE 2024 - International Conference on Renewable Energy and Ecosystem

their traditional way of life. The decline of wild

reindeer populations represents more than just a loss

of biodiversity; it also signifies the erosion of cultural

and linguistic richness, as well as a threat to food

security for certain communities (Mustonen et al.,

2021).

Unlike the settled Tuvan, the nomadic Evenki

face an even more daunting survival predicament.

Since the 20th century, due to large-scale forest

exploitation and the establishment of nature reserves,

the Evenki's traditional territories have been

continuously encroached upon and destroyed, making

their nomadic way of life increasingly difficult to

sustain.

First, deforestation and mining activities have led

to a sharp decline in the reindeer herds that the Evenki

rely on for survival. Reindeer hold a pivotal role for

the Evenki people, serving as a crucial source of food

security and acting as the foundation for preserving

their cultural and linguistic heritage. Additionally,

reindeer are intrinsically linked to the Evenki beliefs,

social structure, administration of justice, and their

profound understanding of the natural world across

the territories they inhabit (Mustonen et al., 2021).

Due to habitat loss, reindeer have been unable to

obtain sufficient food and water sources, causing a

significant decrease in the reindeer population.

Second, to protect rare flora and fauna, the

government has gradually established nature reserves

within the Evenki's activity range, such as the Ao Lu

Gu Ya District. This move has allowed the Evenki to

create a new source of income through tourism. The

culture of northern indigenous communities primarily

serves as a reflection of their rich spiritual realm, an

aspect that has piqued the curiosity and drawn the

attention of representatives from other civilizations

over a long time (Zamaraeva et al., 2019). However,

while these reserves protect the Evenki's reindeer,

they have also completely severed the hunting and

herding routes that the Evenki have relied on for

centuries to sustain their livelihoods, depriving them

of their main sources of subsistence.

Third, to completely curb their hunting activities

within the reserves, the government has implemented

large-scale firearm confiscation from the Evenki. For

generations, the Evenki have relied on hunting for

survival, with firearms being an indispensable

survival tool. With their firearms confiscated, they

have not only lost the ability to obtain food through

traditional means, but also the ability to fend off

attacks on their reindeer from wild animals.

This series of policies has led to an unprecedented

destruction of the Evenki's traditional way of life and

culture. Unable to sustain their nomadic lifestyle, the

Evenki population has plummeted, with their

language and culture gradually becoming

endangered. Although the government has relaxed

some restrictions in recent years, the Evenki's plight

remains extremely difficult, and they continue to

struggle to protect their cultural identity.

4 CASE COMPARISON

Through these two cases, we can see that although

both the Tuvan and Evenki face ecological migration

pressures from protected area development, due to

differences in their lifestyles and cultural traditions,

the specific challenges they face and their coping

strategies also differ significantly, as shown in table

1. As a settled ethnic group, although the Tuvan had

to leave their ancestral regions, compared to the

Evenki, the changes to their way of life and cultural

traditions were relatively minor. Driven by tourism

development, they were able to adapt to their new

living environments and gain economic benefits,

while also actively striving to protect their cultural

heritage. Contrarily, the Evenki is a nomadic ethnic

group, relying on traditional subsistence methods and

cultural identity depend more heavily on the

ecological environment. Facing the dual pressures of

habitat loss and forced settlement, their traditional

way of life has been severely disrupted, with their

culture on the verge of being lost.

Furthermore, the two cases also reflect the

different approaches and emphases of the government

in dealing with ecological migration and cultural

preservation issues. In the case of the Tuvan, the local

government focused on developing the tourism

industry to drive economic revitalization, packaging

and utilizing Tuvan culture as an important tourism

resource. Although this approach accelerated the

commercialization of Tuvan culture to some extent, it

also facilitated the dissemination and maintenance of

cultural identity.

In the case of the Evenki, the government's initial

intent was to protect the ecological environment and

wildlife, adopting tough measures such as hunting

bans and establishing nature reserves. However, in

the implementation process, it overlooked the

protection of the Evenki's traditional way of life.

Purely promoting tourism as a replacement for

pastoralism does not inherently safeguard rangelands.

In fact, such an approach can introduce various

environmental impacts and disrupt the traditional

land use practices to which the rangelands have

adapted over time (Fan et al., 2015). Only in recent

years, under domestic and international pressure, has

the government begun to loosen restrictions and

provide support. Despite attempted actions like

establishing. While initiatives like "nomadic

kindergartens" that aim to teach through traditional

practices such as reindeer herding serve as language

Ecological Migration and Cultural Preservation: A Comparative Study of the Tuvan and Evenki Indigenous Groups in China

immersion programs, the authors acknowledge that

significant damage has already occurred,

necessitating tremendous efforts to revitalize and

preserve these cultural practices (Seredkina and

Strucheva, 2018).

The two cases also reflect the inherent tensions

between ecological migration, biodiversity

conservation, and cultural heritage preservation. As

policymakers, how to strike a balance and coordinate

among these three is a pressing challenge that needs

to be addressed.

Table 1: Comparison of the Tuvan and Evenki.

ect Tuvan Evenki

Traditional

Lifestyle

Settled ethnic group mainly engaged in

farming and animal husbandry

Nomadic ethnic group mainly engaged in hunting,

fishing, and reindeer herding

Religion

Own religion closely attached to nature;

Shaman plays a fundamental role

Own religion closely attached to nature; Shaman

lays a fundamental role

Cultural Identity

Deep emotional attachment to local land and

natural resources

Cultural traditions deeply intertwined with the

natural environment

Government

Recognition

Not officially recognized as ethnicity within

China

Officially recognized as ethnicity within China

Tourism

Development

Tourism industry brought economic

opportunities and improved living

conditions

Creation of nature reserves led to a new income

source through tourism

Challenges

Relocation from ancestral villages,

disruption of farming and herding practices

Deforestation and mining caused decline in

reindeer herds, loss of hunting routes, firearm

confiscation

Cultural Impacts

Commodification and objectification of

culture, weakening of vitalit

Destruction of traditional way of life,

endangerment of language and culture

5 IMPLICATIONS FOR

CULTURAL INHERITANCE

While the implementation of ecological migration

(eco-migration) policies may contribute to the

improvement of the fragile environmental conditions

in the areas of emigration, such policies

simultaneously exert immense strain on the human-

environment systems within the regions where these

displaced populations resettle (Hu, Zhou and Yuan,

2018). Several important lessons can be learned from

the case studies of the Tuvan and Evenki tribes that

have implications for cultural inheritance among

future indigenous groups facing ecological migration

pressures. It is critical for governments and

policymakers to consider the unique circumstances of

each tribe early on. Nomadic cultures will require far

different solutions compared to more settled groups,

as fully disrupting traditional land use and access

poses an existential threat to nomadic identities.

Co-developed plans are more likely to succeed

than mere top-down policies that separate indigenous

connections their original lands. Meaningful

engagement with tribes from the project planning

phase onward is essential to properly understand the

cultural significance of places. However, any

economic opportunities also need to be accompanied

by active support for protecting languages, skills,

crafts, and other cultural heritage at risk of loss if

displaced traditional practices are not replaced. A

balanced approach is needed that reconciles

environmental goals with cultural sustainability to

ensure neither takes total priority without consent.

Policies also need to be responsive to tribal feedback

over time to adjust for unintended impacts. At last,

supporting intergenerational cultural learning will be

particularly important where migration disrupts

traditional knowledge transmission. Overall, a

balance between environmental, economic, and

cultural needs should be the utmost important when it

comes to the making of such policies.

6 CONCLUSIONS

In conclusion, this analysis of the Tuvan and Evenki

ethnic groups highlights the complex challenges that

ecological migration poses for indigenous cultural

preservation. As climate change, resource

exploitation, and conservation efforts continue

disrupting traditional lands and practices, more

communities will undoubtedly face similar

displacements in the future. The cases demonstrate

that while economic opportunities may arise from

new land uses, cultural identities rooted in place and

distinctive livelihoods are not easily replaced.

Nomadic cultures, in particular, remain threatened by

loss of access to grazing territories and migration

ICREE 2024 - International Conference on Renewable Energy and Ecosystem

routes. However, with meaningful participation of

affected tribes and nuanced policy approaches, it is

possible to balance ecological, economic and cultural

priorities. Co-managed protected areas, alternative

livelihood programs, and proactive cultural

transmission efforts can protect the indigenous

communities. Overall, this research emphasizes that

to truly support indigenous communities in the

context of environmental changes, governments must

look beyond short-term outcomes to the long-term

viability of unique worldviews sustained through

multi-generational relationships with traditional

homelands. With flexibility, free consent standards,

and holistic solutions based on collaboration with

indigenous communities themselves, it may be

possible to facilitate ecological migration while still

preserving cultural diversity.

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Ecological Migration and Cultural Preservation: A Comparative Study of the Tuvan and Evenki Indigenous Groups in China