Layers of Complexity: The Intersectionality of Parenting in Families

of Female Migrant Workers

Wilodati

, Siti Komariah, Puspita Wulandari and Muhammad Retsa Rizaldi Mujayapura

Sociology Education Study Program, Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia, Jl. Dr. Setiabudhi No. 229, Bandung, Indoneisa

Keywords: Families of Female Migrant Workers, Family Parenting Patterns, Intersectionality of Parenting.

Abstract: The overarching aim of this study is to explore how the interplay between gender, social structure, manifested

in different classes, and status as a migrant affect the practice of parenting within Female Migrant Workers'

Families. Given its novelty, the qualitative dimension of the research undertaken affords an overview of the

life experiences and parenting strategies undertaken by Families of Female Migrant Workers. The research

finds that the intersection of several forms and changing situations-socioeconomic, cultural-elevates their

experiences with parenting into a plane unique and different from what other families endure. Female Migrant

Workers find that they are constantly juggling work abroad with their cultural-defined roles as mothers back

home. Accessibility to resources and structural social definitions on parenting comes into collision with the

physical distance from the child. It thus becomes a variable in giving shape to their parenting patterns. This

research distills from it the need for viewing the parenting experience against a larger background. Multiple

forms of social, cultural, and economic disparity interplay simultaneously to develop complex life experiences.

Policy recommendations link to the call for public policy able to address the needs of Families of Female

Migrant Workers and to enact programs that can build upon women's capacity for personal and family

development.

1 INTRODUCTION

In the era of globalization, the phenomenon of

international labor migration, especially women, has

become one of the topics that has attracted the

attention of various social, economic, and cultural

studies. Many Indonesian women work abroad as

migrant workers to support the economic stability of

their families. Relationships within families that are

separated by geographical distance for a long period

of time present complex issues (Kusumastuti &

Thiesmeyer, 2020). One of them, this phenomenon

has an impact on family life, especially related to

child-rearing patterns.

The family is the main environment in the

development of values, norms, ethics that can become

the identity and character of children (Santika et al.,

2019). The many factors that can hinder the process of

child socialization, families with migrant workers are

certain to have a distance factor as a potential obstacle

to child socialization so that they need a support

system to maintain child development. The long-

https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6063-5284

distance relationship of a mother who is a migrant

worker has the potential for changes in culture,

values, and language so that the extended family

becomes a support system in raising children left

behind by their working mothers (Anindita et al.,

2023). In the digital era where the influence of

information technology enters every element,

including the socialization of children, the role of

extended family support becomes a determinant for

the support system in migrant worker families (Ortiz

& Jeri, 2024).

The role of the extended family in supporting

migrant worker families is important to anticipate the

impact of the loss of parental roles for children. The

basic impact that can be experienced by children who

do not get enough care from their families is the loss

of parental figures as role models (Zai, R.K., & Oet,

S., 2024). The absence of parents as role models for

children makes it easy for children to be influenced

by negative aspects of the external environment

socially or from digital information media (Kucker,

S.C., & Schneider, J.M., 2024). The loss of parental

Wilodati, , Komariah, S., Wulandari, P. and Mujayapura, M. R. R.

Layers of Complexity: The Intersectionality of Parenting in Families of Female Migrant Workers.

DOI: 10.5220/0013414700004654

Paper published under CC license (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0)

In Proceedings of the 4th International Conference on Humanities Education, Law, and Social Science (ICHELS 2024), pages 87-94

ISBN: 978-989-758-752-8

figures can also make children feel insecure and less

confident, and inhibit the formation of positive values

and good character (Miralles, P., et al., 2023).

The National Agency for the Placement and

Protection of Indonesian Migrant Workers

(BNP2TKI) delivers data that women are the majority

of the total Indonesian migrant with the number more

than 70%. The majority of whom are mothers who

leave their children at home, where in several areas

with migrant worker bases such as Central Java, West

Java, and West Nusa Tenggara, it was recorded that

more than 50% of children from migrant worker

families were cared for by grandparents or close

relatives (OECD, 2022; National Commission on

Violence Against Women, 2022). This pattern shows

that the extended family plays an important role in

parenting where they replace the role of mothers who

work abroad. Furthermore, The Ministry of Women's

Empowerment and Child Protection (KPPPA)

showed the survey that around 40% of these children

showed symptoms of anxiety, feelings of loss, and

identity confusion due to being separated from their

mothers for a long period of time (Mayang, et al.,

2019). So that children from female migrant worker

families often face emotional and social challenges.

Thus, the condition of a family with a mother who is

a migrant worker is not an ideal condition because the

absence of a mother in the nuclear family is replaced

by the role of a father who plays a dual role or an

extended family who complement the presence of the

family in children. Social and cultural norms that are

developing can influence the role of fathers and

mothers in childcare (Craig, L., & Mullan, K., 2011).

Family development theory recognizes changes in

gender roles in childcare (Usman, M., et al., 2023) so

that in its development the involvement of fathers in

care becomes important in the emotional and

cognitive development of children significantly

(Fahira, K. F., & Ahmadi, A., 2024).

In the context of a family environment with

female migrant workers, the dynamics of these roles

create unique challenges, especially in a society that

is still heavily influenced by patriarchal norms, such

as in Indonesia. The study that implies the ideal

conditions of parenting practices that require the

presence of parents and emphasize the importance of

the father figure is faced with the reality of a number

of communities with women migrant workers who

force a mother to be separated from her child and

husband so that the role of parenting is the role of the

father or extended family, with dynamic social values

and norms. This study takes a role in studies on

female migrant workers by connecting various

variables holistically. This study also specifically

studies childcare patterns in families whose mothers

are working. Therefore, this study aims to analyze

how the intersectionality of gender, social structure,

and status as a migrant worker affect parenting

practices.

2 RESEARCH METHODS

Based on the research objectives where this article

will analyze intersectionally how gender, social

structure, and status as women migrant workers carry

out parenting practices, a qualitative approach with a

case study method is carried out to obtain accurate

data. Through a qualitative approach with a case

study method, this study will obtain an in-depth

picture of how parenting practices are carried out by

families with women migrant workers.

Through the case study method, the subjects

studied provide empirical data in the form of personal

experiences, life journeys, interactions, and visuals

that describe the lives of women migrant workers'

families. Thus, data collection was carried out using

in-depth interview, participatory observation, and

analysis of relevant documents so that a

comprehensive understanding of the case study being

studied can be obtained.

The case study referred to in this study is the

condition of parenting practices carried out by the

nuclear family (father) or the extended family left by

the mother who works as a migrant worker. By

analyzing case studies that include the experiences

and contexts of women migrant workers' families,

this study presents meaningful findings that can

contribute to understanding how to support children's

needs intersectionally.

Fathers, children, and relatives in the extended

family environment with women migrant workers

became participants in this study located in Cipatat

District, West Bandung Regency. The steps taken to

achieve the objectives of this study are: First,

conducting careful subject selection by selecting

families of female migrant workers who meet the

criteria; second, the researcher approaches them

openly to obtain permission and trust from

informants;

third,

collecting

data

conducting

observations, in-depth interviews with family

members, and analyzing relevant documents. The

data collection process pays special attention to the

dynamics of interactions between fathers and children

and the roles played by extended family members in

parenting practices. Then the data is analyzed in depth

with a focus on thematic patterns and variations that

emerge from various case studies. The findings from

ICHELS 2024 - The International Conference on Humanities Education, Law, and Social Science

this analysis are then compiled and conceptualized

into a cohesive narrative in order to present a

comprehensive study of parenting practices carried

out in families of female migrant workers analyzed

intersectionally.

3 FINDING & DISCUSSION

3.1 Parenting Patterns in Women

Migrant Workers Families

Parenting patterns affect a child's physical, emotional,

social, and intellectual development (Robbiyah, et al.,

2018). Three types of parenting patterns can be

categorized as authoritative, authoritarian, and

permissive (Kılıçkay et al., 2023). The three types of

parenting patterns applied to families are influenced

by the family's socioeconomic status and surrounding

culture (Kadir, 2020).

The division of roles based on gender in parenting

patterns is perceived in the way parents educate their

children. The traditional view places the father as the

provider of the family's financial needs as well as an

authority figure who tends to be involved in activities

that emphasize independence, resilience, and

courage. Meanwhile, the mother is often considered

the person responsible for the child's emotional and

social development needs by teaching empathy,

communication, and interpersonal relationships.

Therefore, the absence of a mother in the family of a

migrant female worker can affect the pattern of

interaction in the family environment because of the

traditional values that are formed.

The absence of a mother figure in a family in a

society that assumes that taking care of children is a

woman's job then becomes a problem because the

father is unable to optimize his role in parenting. The

formation of a father's mindset that limits his role to

the idea that raising children is not a father's job is

illustrated in the statement of Mr Herman (42),

namely:

As a man, my job is in the fields, like most men

here in general. Housework is a woman's job.

Children are also a woman's responsibility as a

mother at home. Household chores and raising

children are a woman's responsibility; my

responsibility as a man is to work in the fields to

earn a living for the family at home.

Herman is a husband of a wife who works abroad.

Herman has been in a long-distance relationship with

his wife for quite some time. In taking care of the

household in a family left by a wife or mother,

Herman shares his story about raising children in their

family. With such a view, the father does not have the

ability to raise children. The care of children whose

long distance relationship with his mother is

eventually transferred to other women in the family,

usually grandmothers as substitute mothers. Thus, the

extended family contributes to the care of children by

providing daily needs, including psychosocial. The

extended family plays a role in consciously passing

on family values and traditions that a child whose

mother works needs a substitute figure to continue to

care for, look after, and educate the child. Grandma

Ema is the mother of a migrant worker woman. She

helped raise her grandson even though the father

figure is still directly present in his life. This was

expressed by Grandma Ema (51):

It is our responsibility as Grandparents to protect

our grandchildren. Mother's departure as a

migrant worker abroad was a family decision, and

as a family, we try to make sure that all the

grandchildren's needs are met. They will not be

with anyone else as long as we, the grandparents,

are still around.

It is depicted that the extended family has a

commitment to raising children left by their mothers

to work. The high commitment of the extended family

also supports the smooth career of women as migrant

workers abroad. The parenting pattern is taken over

by the extended family such as grandparents because

they are considered more capable and have

experience. So, the next challenge is emotional

closeness and social ties with the family. The loss of

a mother figure who is not accompanied by the

presence of a father because of his reluctance to take

care of children creates a lack of self-confidence and

closeness with the family. Nino is a child who was

abandoned by his mother who works abroad. Now he

is 16 years old, he has felt life far from his mother

since Nino was little. His age which has entered

adolescence makes him really feel the longing for a

mother figure directly. This was conveyed by Nino

(16) that:

Sometimes I feel different from other friends. I feel

like I don't have a mother, I'm not close to my

father. Only with my grandfather and

grandmother. I feel like I want to be like other

friends who are accompanied by their mothers at

home.

However, the parenting pattern of fathers in

migrant women's families cannot be categorized. The

parenting pattern of fathers is described in a table

based on data collected using AppSheet (Wilodati, et

al., 2024) as follows:

Layers of Complexity: The Intersectionality of Parenting in Families of Female Migrant Workers

Table 1: Parenting patterns of fathers in female migrant worker families.

Parenting Style Characteristics

Authoritative

• Provide freedom with certain limits;

• Parent firmly, but with love, warmth, tenderness,

and intimacy;

• Rules are made and explained in detail;

• All decisions related to the interests of the child

are communicated together;

• Foster an independent attitude from

an early age;

• Respect the child's decisions and opinions, as

well a

the child's

ersonalit

Otoritarian

• The rules made by the father must not be violated

by the child;

• The father never communicates clearly

about the rules he makes;

• The child must obey the rules set by the father;

• The child must never question the rules

implemented by the father;

• If the child violates the rules made, the father will

give a stern warning;

• If the child violates the rules in the family

environment, the father will give punishment

(beating);

• The father makes all decisions related to the

child's needs himself;

• All decisions related to the child's interests are

always made by the father;

• The child must obey all his father's wishes. The

child is not allowed to voice his wishes and

inions.

Permissive

• Fathers always give their children freedom to

behave;

• Fathers always involve themselves in their

children's lives;

• Fathers never demand anything from their

children;

• Fathers never exercise control when

raising children;

• Fathers never punish children when they make

mistakes;

• Fathers rarely interfere in their children's

personal lives;

• Fathers are always warm to their children,

appreciate self-expression, and discuss all

decisions made;

• Fathers always follow their children's wishes

and desires;

• When raising children, fathers never

control an

attention to them.

The tendency of parenting patterns based on the

table above by fathers in the environment of migrant

female workers is authoritative with a democratic

attitude that respects the existence of their children,

understands their situation, and respects the decisions

and opinions of their children.

Various types of parenting patterns need to be

examined more deeply to analyze holistically how

parenting patterns are formed in the context of

families left behind by migrant women workers.

Variables that can be considered based on these

findings are regarding social class. Women who work

ICHELS 2024 - The International Conference on Humanities Education, Law, and Social Science

abroad also have economic needs issues so that caring

for children is not something that is taken into account

in the initial decision to become migrant workers.

Therefore, the challenges faced by low-income

families in arranging parenting patterns become

complicated. The challenges faced by low-income

families are not about parenting patterns in the family,

but rather by the pressure of parenting in the social

system network that tends to invite parents (Sherman

and Harris, 2012). Therefore, this discussion will be

examined in next section.

3.2 Social and Cultural Challenges

Migrant women workers are hard workers who

struggle for their families. Working abroad is a

demand for the economic reality they experience

(Ford, 2008). The role of migrant mothers often

creates conflict with cultural expectations (Robinson,

2002). Migrant women workers face criticism that

they are considered to have abandoned their

obligations as mothers. In addition, the traditional

Islamic view in Indonesia increasingly strengthens

the role of mothers as guardians of family morals

(Wieringa, 2015). This religious teaching constructs

the values of women's piety that expect mothers to

prioritize domestic roles.

The paradigm of childcare that is shared with the

task of one gender, in this case women, is a big

challenge when the absence of women directly in care

can be a disaster for the condition of the child. The

absence of the mother can affect the child's self-

confidence and ability to interact with their

environment (Coleman, 2003). The statement of Mr.

Herman (42) which has been conveyed above reflects

the social construct that forms the view of how and

who takes care of children has an impact on the

emotional bond of the child to his family as expressed

by Nino (16). So, indirectly what the child feels when

his mother works abroad is that the child feels like he

has lost the figure of both parents who are replaced by

grandparents. The social construct that is already

attached as above is not only conceptualized in a

father, but also in the figure of the mother herself.

Working far away abroad is not an ideal condition.

Various factors such as the economy and the

availability of jobs in the country which are not the

main topic of this study force a mother to be far from

her child and family. This non-ideal condition with

such a social construct makes the mother's trust to

delegate childcare not to her husband, but to entrust it

to another female figure, namely her mother, to take

care of the child. Tina is a woman who works abroad.

She reluctantly left her children and husband in the

village. Tina's decision to work abroad was not a

decision based on personal ego. As conveyed by Mrs.

Tina (37):

Honestly, my decision to work abroad was not my

own desire. There are several things to consider, both

from the immediate family between me and my

husband, and the support from my parents. Because I

believe, my parents will take care of my child while I

work abroad, not my husband.

The statement by Mr. Herman (42) who feels that

childcare is not a man's responsibility reflects a deep-

rooted social construction. This view emphasizes that

the father's role is more focused on providing a living

and not on the daily care of the child. As a result,

when a mother works abroad, the father often does

not feel ready or is not expected to take over the full

caregiving role. This has the potential to weaken the

emotional bond between father and child because the

father's involvement in care is very limited.

The consequence of this situation is that children

from female migrant worker families, as expressed by

Nino (16) who feel the loss of both parental figures.

The absence of a mother because she works abroad

combined with the father's lack of involvement in

care makes the child feel isolated. Grandparents

become figures who are relied on to fulfill their

emotional and social needs. However, care by

grandparents, although full of affection, is often

unable to replace the presence of parents in their

entirety.

The findings of Mrs. Tina (37) who entrusts the

care of her child to her mother rather than her husband

reflect the limitations of the father's role in a family

system that is still dominated by patriarchal norms.

This shows that even when the father is at home,

mothers who work as migrants prefer to entrust their

children to other female figures, in this case

grandmothers, who are considered more appropriate

to take care of the children. This decision is not solely

due to the father's inability, but is more influenced by

social constructs that dictate who is more entitled or

more capable in caring for them.

This decision shows a systemic distrust of the

father's ability to carry out the role of caregiving.

Social norms that shape the perception that caregiving

tasks are the domain of women, be it mothers or

grandmothers, create gender inequality in the family.

This underlines that changes in gender roles in

caregiving have not been fully accepted in society,

even though the situation forces fathers to be more

involved when mothers work far abroad.

Layers of Complexity: The Intersectionality of Parenting in Families of Female Migrant Workers

The mother's decision to entrust caregiving to her

grandmother rather than her husband shows that the

family support system remains more dependent on

women. In fact, research shows that direct father

involvement in caregiving has a significant positive

impact on children's emotional and cognitive

development (Fahira, K. F., & Ahmadi, A., 2024).

Supportive fathering can mitigate the mother’s

absence but requires role adjustments within the

family structure (Lamb, 2012). The father's lack of

involvement not only affects the child but also the

relationship between the father and child, which

ultimately affects the family's overall well-being.

The parenting pattern of fathers who give freedom

within limits is a form of control that can foster

children's responsibility. The authoritative parenting

pattern used by fathers in migrant female worker

families provides an alternative character education

that tends to have good social skills, high levels of

self-confidence, and good emotional abilities

(Wilodati et al., 2024).

Mulltidimensional Family Development Theory

(MFDT) describe that family development is shaped

by the interdependent relationships among family

members connected through their respective stages

of development (Crapo & Bradford, 2021). In the

context of female migrant workers leaving their

families behind, family support, particularly the role

of husbands and extended family, becomes crucial.

The family.

The tendency of parenting patterns based on the

table above by fathers in the environment of migrant

female workers is authoritative with a democratic

attitude that respects the existence of their children,

understands their situation, and respects the decisions

and opinions of their children.

Various types of parenting patterns need to be

examined more deeply to analyze holistically how

parenting patterns are formed in the context of

families left behind by migrant women workers.

Variables that can be considered based on these

findings are regarding social class. Women who work

abroad also have economic needs issues so that caring

for children is not something that is taken into account

in the initial decision to become migrant workers.

Therefore, the challenges faced by low-income

families in arranging parenting patterns become

complicated. The challenges faced by low-income

families are not about parenting patterns in the family,

but rather by the pressure of parenting in the social

system network that tends to invite parents (Sherman

and Harris, 2012). Therefore, this discussion will be

examined in next section. involves interactions

between ontogenesis—such as individual

developmental needs—and the cultural context,

which includes social norms and historical forces.

Thus, the needs arising in the families of migrant

workers often stem from the intersection of individual

development and prevailing socio-cultural dynamics.

The research location in the Bandung area, which

is mostly Sundanese, needs to be supplemented with a

study of how the values of the division of new roles

between fathers and mothers in the family. Sundanese

society prioritizes the role of mothers as the main

caregivers and fathers play a role in earning a living.

One of the Sundanese cultural values is the concept

of cageur, bageur, bener, and pinter as a pillar in

socialization to the next generation. Fathers with an

authoritarian parenting style will impose the concepts

of cageur, bageur, bener, singer, and pinter on their

children with demands to obey their children. Fathers

with an authoritative parenting style try to exemplify

a healthy lifestyle and worship. While the permissive

type will give the impression of making them do what

they want. Open communication between father and

child allows the exchange of information about

cultural norms and values from father to child to

understand complex information (Rahmayanty, D., et

al., 2023). So that the application of Sundanese

cultural values by father functions as a tool to

facilitate holistic cognitive development.

This finding implies a discussion of the socio-

cultural role in dealing with the reality of family life

with migrant women. Gender roles constructed by

local community values determine parenting patterns

and family relationships in caring for children. From

our findings that show migrant women in Sundanese

society, I try to compare them with Javanese

community values. Javanese culture places the role of

the husband as the provider of control and determines

the household situation. In the context of migrant

women in Javanese society, patriarchal culture is still

the principle of running household life so that the

power structure in the household cannot be

determined by women (Gumilang, 2009).

3.3 Technology in Maintaining

Emotional Bonds

Migrant mothers use a variety of strategies to manage

their responsibilities as breadwinners and caregivers,

despite being physically distant from their children.

One key strategy is to use communication

technologies such as video calls or instant messaging

apps to maintain emotional connections with their

children. Tina (37), a migrant mother, explained:

I always make sure to call my child every night,

ask about his day, and remind him to study.

ICHELS 2024 - The International Conference on Humanities Education, Law, and Social Science

In addition, migrant mothers often rely on

extended family to help with childcare. Grandmothers

play a significant role in providing for children's

emotional and physical needs. As Ema (51), a

grandmother, explained:

We, as an extended family, work together to make

sure the children feel supported even though their

mother is far away.

The absence of mothers as migrant workers

causes children to feel a loss of emotional closeness.

Nino (16) in his interview also told of the loss of a

mother figure who went abroad. Technology can be a

bridge that allows mothers to continue to participate

in everyday life. Although long-distance

communication does not really replace real face-to-

face interactions (Lim, 2019), this interaction helps

reduce feelings of alienation and provides comfort to

children even though they are physically separated.

Technology can also be used by caregivers at home,

such as fathers or grandparents to involve mothers in

daily decision-making regarding childcare. Mothers

can still contribute to important decisions for the

family even though they are not physically present.

In some cases, technology can also help fathers to

be more involved in childcare when mothers work

abroad. With access to digital platforms that support

parenting education, fathers can gain the knowledge

needed to better care for their children, especially in

situations where fathers were previously unfamiliar

with the role of caregiving. This can enrich the

father's experience in understanding the emotional

and psychological needs of the child, while

encouraging more active father involvement in the

family. However, it is necessary to be aware that there

are potential problems when the use of technology is

used in parenting. The digital divide, for example, has

the potential to occur in the use of technology if the

child is cared for by an extended family such as

grandparents. The use of technology with minimal

control can reduce the quality of emotional closeness

between the child and the family.

4 CONCLUSIONS

The absence of mothers who work as migrant workers

has an impact on childcare patterns. Children who are

left behind lose a mother figure which can disrupt the

child's development. This condition occurs when the

father's role as a caregiver is not optimized due to lack

of experience and because of social norms that

consider caregiving as a woman's task. The care of

children left behind by working mothers is shifted to

the extended family, especially grandparents. The

role of the extended family is very important in

maintaining emotional stability and social

development of children. Grandparents not only

provide physical needs but also ensure that children

remain connected to the cultural values and traditions

of the family. However, there are challenges in the

form of generation gaps that can affect parenting

patterns, where the approach used is often more

authoritarian or permissive. This study confirms that

gender, social structure, and status as a migrant

worker create their own challenges in parenting

practices. A structural approach can be an alternative

to anticipate the challenges faced by female migrant

workers who leave their families in their hometowns.

Sympathetic and holistic policies can be implemented

as in the Philippines which can provide protection

through family reunification programs to provide

support to families left behind by working. A more

inclusive and adaptive approach is needed to ensure

that the needs of children and the welfare of migrant

worker families can be met holistically.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We would like to express our gratitude to all

participants, colleagues, and institutions who

supported this research and provided valuable

insights.

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