Paradigm of Inland Fisheries Resources Management: An

Environmental Sociology Review

Firdaus W. Suhaeb

, Muhammad Aksha Wahda

, Bahrul Amsal

and Ernawati S. Kaseng

Department Sociology, Universitas Negeri Makassar, Makassar, Indonesia

Departemen of Agricultural Technology Education, Universitas Negeri Makassar, Makassar, Indonesia

Keywords: Inland Fisheries, Natural Resource Management Paradigm, Anthropocentrism, Environmental Sociology.

Abstract: Inland fishery resources are faced with ecosystem damage due to highly exploitative utilization. This is closely

related to the paradigm of natural resource management. The anthropocentric paradigm that has been widely

embraced so far places the environment only as a tool to meet human needs. In the last 30 years, inland fishery

resources have been damaged due to various human activities. The purpose of the research is to analyze the

paradigm of inland fishery resource management and the impact of aquatic environmental damage caused.

The research method uses literature studies. The data were analyzed using articles obtained from reputable

national and international journals, and related to research problems. Data analysis is carried out through the

stages of recording important and relevant parts, compiling, then analyzing, and drawing conclusions. The

results of the study show that the management of inland fishery resources in Indonesia is very anthropocentric.

Natural resource management is generally focused on the production aspect and ignores the sustainability

aspect. The causes of the damage are continuous large-scale fishing, water pollution due to inland

acriviability, conversion of inland water areas, suboptimal governance and synergy of stakeholders. As a

result, the decline in fish populations due to uncontrolled fishing, the extinction of some endemic fish, and

water pollution are a serious threat. Damage to inland water areas not only threatens the environment, but also

poses a threat to the social and cultural life of the surrounding communities.

1 INTRODUCTION

One of Indonesia's natural resources is inland

fisheries. Although it does not provide the large

sustainable production potential of the marine sector.

Inland fisheries contribute to food security and

provide employment for communities. Inland waters

have their own uniqueness compared to marine areas,

such as the potential for endemic varieties. From an

emic perspective, the presence of endemic fish is part

of the life of the local community. Furthermore,

inland waters also contribute to improving the welfare

of local communities with the potential of fish

resources. Indonesia's inland waters have a high

diversity of fish species, making it recorded as a mega

biodiversity in the world (Kartamihardja et al., 2009)

which is inhabited by approximately 100 species of

https://orcid.org/0009-0003-7872-3102

https://orcid.org/0009-0005-1013-7021

https://orcid.org/0009-0006-6283-3835

https://orcid.org/0009-0009-0129-8084

fish(Kottelat, M et T Whitten 1996 Freshwater

Biodiversity in Asia With Special Reference to Fish,

Volumes 23-343.Pdf, n.d.). In addition to the fisheries

sector, inland water areas also function as raw water

providers for consumption, agriculture, industry and

tourist attractions.

The management of inland waters is faced

with various problems and challenges. Increasing

challenges due to climate change and socio-cultural-

economic factors further add to the burden of

sustainable management of inland water areas.

Beyond the impacts of climate change, disparities in

power dynamics, limited access, socio-cultural and

socio-economic disparities.

Inland fisheries resource issues are not only

related to fishing activities. A variety of problems

exist that are complex and interconnected. For

Suhaeb, F. W., Wahda, M. A., Amsal, B. and Kaseng, E. S.

Paradigm of Inland Fisheries Resources Management: An Environmental Sociology Review.

DOI: 10.5220/0013408100004654

In Proceedings of the 4th International Conference on Humanities Education, Law, and Social Science (ICHELS 2024), pages 18-30

ISBN: 978-989-758-752-8

example, pollution, poor governance, threats to

endemic species, changes in water areas, movement

of diseases and pathogens, and social conflicts.

Uncontrolled fishing; pollution due to inland

activities; declining endemic fish populations;

damage to inland areas; suboptimal policies and

governance; and Fishermen's poverty are problems

that must be resolved immediately.

Fisheries resources arerenewable or recoverable

resources. Although renewable, fisheries resources

are very vulnerable to damage and threatened with

sustainability. Sustainability and preservation of

fisheries resources are highly dependent on

management patterns. Several strategies have been

implemented to prevent and overcome the problems

faced by fisheries resources. Introductions and

restocking are done to maintain fish stocks. However,

these measures are not effective in preventing the

extinction of biodiversity. Introductions actually

cause new

problems, especially the existence of

endemic species. Fish introduction is done to increase

the economic function of inland fisheries by

introducing iken with a short growth period and large

size. In this activity there is an anthropocene

trajectory, the achievement of increased production

ignores the sustainability of the ecosystem. These

activities are very likely to accelerate extinction

(Wahyudewantoro & Rachmatika, 2016). In addition

to restocking and induction, other strategies include

limiting human activities such as regulating fishing

gear, closing fishing periods, closing water areas, and

establishing conservation areas.

Efforts to encourage sustainable management of

fisheries resources are often faced with economic

interests, resulting in ecological aspects being

neglected. A case in point is the utilization of inland

water areas for cage culture fisheries. This practice

has resulted in changes in the composition of endemic

fish species and biochemical contamination of water

areas. (Hutajulu & Harahap, 2023; Yuniarti et al.,

2023).

This paper will examine the management of

inland fisheries resources in Indonesia. The analysis

is conducted through a review of journals, research

reports, and other documents related to the

management of inland water areas. The analysis is

carried out by examining management, problems and

impacts on the environment and society. Analysis of

the management of inland water areas is focused on

the perspective of political ecology as an alternative

paradigm in natural resource management. The

perspective of political ecology can be said to be the

antithesis of the developmentalism and neoliberalism

paradigms that have been established in practice.

2 METHOD

This article uses the literature study method. We

conducted a search for scientific articles that examine

fisheries resource management in various aspects.

The search for articles focused on national articles

and articles from reputable international journals.

Some articles did not fall into these categories, but we

still used them because they presented field facts in

accordance with the needs of this article. Data

analysis is carried out through the stages of recording

important and relevant parts, compiling, then

analyzing, and drawing conclusions. The facts found

were analyzed using a sociological approach and

political ecology. the results are presented in

descriptive form.

3 RESULT AND DISCUSSION

3.1 Overview of Inland Fisheries

Resources in Indonesia

Fisheries resources arerenewable or recoverable

resources. Although renewable, fisheries resources

are very vulnerable to damage and threatened with

sustainability. The sustainability and preservation of

fisheries resources is highly dependent on

management patterns. The basic principle in

management that needs to be understood is that its

utilization must pay attention to the carrying capacity

of the resource. We can ask a simple question that will

also be a trigger in proposing a management model,

namely how to manage fisheries resources that can

provide ecological benefits (sustainability and

sustainability) and provide economic benefits for the

people who use them. There are two things that need

to be harmonized in this question, namely the

sustainability of fisheries resources and economic

benefits for the community.

The ideal management model should be able to

accommodate both sustainability and economic

interests. To accommodate these interests, it is

formulated in three objectives, namely the

sustainability of fish resources, habitat sustainability,

and business sustainability. Sustainability of fisheries

resources can be implemented by preserving biota

including native/endemic fish species and inland

water areas. There are four main ecosystem

compartments (Rahardjo, 2012), namely the

biological compartment, the non-biological

compartment characterized by the topography of the

water bottom type and water quality, the fishing and

Paradigm of Inland Fisheries Resources Management: An Environmental Sociology Review

harvesting process compartment with technological

characteristics, and the institutional compartment

which is intertwined with the regulations and

organizations needed in fisheries governance. These

compartments interact with and are influenced by

non-capture activities, climate change, neighboring

ecosystems that exchange materials and information,

the socioeconomic environment reflecting markets,

relevant policies, and social values.

The utilization of inland water resources in

Indonesia is increasing along with the increasing rate

of population growth. Its utilization is not only in the

aspect of fisheries, but also used for water

consumption needs, industrial raw water sources,

transportation facilities, energy, irrigation, and for

tourism purposes. However, the utilization of inland

water areas is less controlled, causing considerable

pressure on the carrying capacity of the environment.

The government has designated 15 National Priority

Lakes that must be saved immediately, because the

existence of these lakes has a considerable impact on

society. Various interests are present in the

management of inland water resources which include

lakes, rivers, swamps, artificial water areas. Fisheries

resources are faced with at least four problems,

namely increasing fishing intensity and controlled

levels, extinction of endemic species, pollution,

modification of the aquatic environment / land use

change, not optimal governance, and inequality of

access.

3.1.1 Overfishing in Indonesia

Continued fishing correlates with increased public

fish consumption. This has led to a decline in fish

stocks and populations. Uncontrolled fishing can be

seen in the behavior of catching broodstock and fry.

Initially, inland waters were multi-species, generally

dominated by large fish, with some medium and small

fish. As fishing activities increased compared to

conservation efforts, large and medium-sized fish

decreased, replaced by small fish. This phenomenon

is termed fish down the foodweb (Rahardjo, 2012).

As a form of control over fishing activities can be

done by dividing zoning, regulating fishing time,

regulating the type and size of fish that can be caught,

and regulating the use of fishing gear. One of the

zoning divisions is by establishing fish conservation

areas and fishing areas. Furthermore, the regulation

of fishing time aims to provide time for fish resources

to carry out the process of reproduction and fish

growth. Type and size regulations are implemented to

ensure that the fish caught are not protected fish

species, not broodstock or fry, and the size of the fish

is fish that is suitable for consumption. Supervision of

the type and size of fish that can be caught and traded

can be carried out at fish landing sites, fish auction

sites, and fish markets / traditional markets. The use

of fishing gear is important to monitor. The

government can socialize the types of fishing gear

that are prohibited and explain the impacts. The

government has established several fishing gears that

are allowed to be used and prohibited to be used.

The extinction of endemic species is correlated with

uncontrolled fishing activities. The next cause is the

emergence of invasive fish or other fish species that

interfere with the existence of endemic fish. The

increase in the distribution of new fish species can

occur through the process of fish introduction,

intentional or unintentional release by the

community. The worst impact is the extinction of

endemic fish.

3.1.2 Degradation of Endemic Fish Species

Freshwater fish have always been a major source of

food for humans. It is in a very vulnerable situation as

its habitat is being degraded. Agricultural activities,

damming, canalization, deforestation, wetland

reclamation, urbanization, water extraction and

transfer, and waste disposal are significantly altering

freshwater ecosystems. (Arlinghaus et al., 2002).

One of the causes of degradation and extinction

threats to endemic species is fish introduction

activities that do not pay attention to the sustainability

aspects of inland aquatic ecosystems. Fish

introduction is the activity of introducing new species

of fish into waters where previously the fish to be

introduced did not exist in the waters. Fish

introductions in Indonesia have been carried out since

the 18th century, namely 16 species and until now

officially recorded as many as 24 species

(Wahyudewantoro & Rachmatika, 2016).

The original purpose of fish introduction was to

cultivate superior fish, increase the productivity of

fisheries in a water body, control pests or weeds and

fishing game. Other records mention that fish

introductions were carried out with the aim of

diversifying farmed fish, and controlling disease

vectors (Muchlisin, 2011). Fish introduction with the

aim of saving endemic fish populations has been

carried out by saving the bilih population from its

habitat in Lake Singkarak, West Sumatra to Lake

Toba, North Sumatra, the results are quite good,

namely the size which was originally only 9 cm in its

natural habitat grew longer in Lake Toba reaching

18.5 cm (Umar & Sulaiman, 2013).

ICHELS 2024 - The International Conference on Humanities Education, Law, and Social Science

Unsupervised fish introductions have damaged

aquatic ecosystems. Introduced fish species are

generally invasive, have high adaptability, and fast

breeding ability. Another characteristic of introduced

fish is that they are able to live with the type of food

that is around them, and become top predators for

other fish. In addition, introduced fish can become a

dominant species because introduced fish have high

fecundity, mature gonads and rapid growth (Webinar

Series Road to ISARM 2022 IPB). Introduced foreign

fish will take up the spawning space of endemic fish.

Table 1: Introduced fish species in Indonesia and their

distribution.

Indonesia

Name

Scientific

Name

Year of

introducti

Origi

Introducti

Objective

1 Mas

Cyprinus

car

Before

1900

China Indonesia

2 Nilem

Osteochilu

hasseltii

1937

Unkn

own

Irian Jaya

3 Koan

Ctenophar

yngodon

idella

1964

Mala

ysia,

Singa

pore,

Thail

and

dan

Jepan

Indonesia

4 Mola

Hypophtha

lmichthys

molitrix

1969

Jepan

g dan

Taiwa

Indonesia

Karp

Lumpur

Cina

Cirrhinus

chinensis

1969

Taiwa

Indonesia

Karper

Cina

Hypophtha

lmichthys

nobilis

Jepan

Indonesia

Karper

Cina

Hypophtha

lmichthys

nobilis

1969

Taiwa

Indonesia

8 Tawes

Puntius

onionotus

1963

Unkn

own

Irian Jaya

Tawes

derban

Puntius

hoides

1963

Unkn

own

Irian Jaya

Carp

lum

Cirrhinus

molitorella

Jepan

Indonesia

Rainbow

trout

Oncorhync

hus mykiss

1929

Belan

Indonesia

Rainbow

trout

Oncorhync

hus m

kiss

1983

Unkn

own

Irian Jaya

Bintik

putih/panc

hax biru

Aplocheilu

s panchax

Unknown

Indon

esia

(diseb

elah

barat

garis

walla

cea

)

Indonesia

14 Gurame

Osphrone

mus

oramy

1937

Unkn

own

Irian Jaya

15 Sepat siam

Trichogast

ectoralis

1937

Unkn

own

Irian Jaya

Indonesia

Name

Scientific

Name

Year of

introducti

Origi

Introducti

Objective

16 Sepat siam

Trichogast

ectoralis

1930

Mala

ysia

Indonesia

17 Tambakan

Helostoma

temminckii

1937

Unkn

own

Irian Jaya

18 Tambakan

Helostoma

temminckii

Indon

esia

(Pula

Jawa

)

Bali

19 Tambakan

Helostoma

temminckii

Indon

esia

(Pula

Kalim

antan

)

Sulawesi

20 Betok

Anabas

testudineus

Unknown

Unkn

own

Irian Jaya

21 Mujahir

Oreochro

mis

mossambic

1939

Barat

Afric

Indonesia

22 Mujahir

Oreochro

mis

mossambic

Philip

ina

Indonesia

23 Nila

Oreochro

mis

niloticus

1971

Unkn

own

Irian Jaya

24 Nila

Oreochro

mis s

1980

Philip

ina

Indonesia

25 Nila

Oreochro

mis

niloticus

After 1980

Taiwa

Indonesia

26 Nila

Oreochro

mis

niloticus

Philip

ina

Indonesia

27 Sidat

Anguilla

anguilla

1992

Inggri

Pranc

is,

Denm

Indonesia

28 Koki

Carassius

auratus

Unknown China Indonesia

29 Gabus

Channa

triata

South

China

Indonesia

Lele

Dumbo

Clarias

arie

inus

Mid-1980

Belan

Indonesia

31 Lele Lokal

Clarias

batrachus

1939

Indon

esia

(Pula

Jawa

)

Sulawesi

Lele

Dumbo

Clarias

gariepinus

1985

South

Afrik

Indonesia

Lele

Amerika

Ictalurus

unctatus

1986

Amer

ika

Indonesia

Sejenis

Bawal

Colossoma

macropom

1986

Taiwa

Indonesia

Ikan

amu

Gambusia

inis

1929 Italy Indonesia

Bintik

Mutiara

Etroplus

uratensis

1979

Mala

sia

Indonesia

7 Gupi

Poecilia

reticulata

1920

Unkn

own

Indonesia

8 Salmon

Salmo

ala

1929

Belan

Indonesia

9 Salmon

Salmo

trutta

ario

1929

Belan

Indonesia

Paradigm of Inland Fisheries Resources Management: An Environmental Sociology Review

Indonesia

Name

Scientific

Name

Year of

introducti

Origi

Introducti

Objective

Tench

Tinca tinca 1927

Belan

Indonesia

41 Pacu

Piaractus

brachypom

1985

Taiwa

Indonesia

42 Patin Siam

Pangasius

hypophthal

mus

Thail

and

Indonesia

Source: Jurnal Kebijakan Perikanan Indonesia (Umar dan

Sulaiman, 2013).

Research conducted by Kottelat, in Western

Indonesia and Sulawesi has found as many as 900

species of freshwater fish. (Wahyudewantoro &

Rachmatika, 2016). FAO notes that (Umar &

Sulaiman, 2013) The first fish introduction was

carried out in 1939 but did not specifically mention

the purpose of the fish, the first fish introduced on the

island of Sulawesi was the local catfish curl (Clarias

batrachus) from Java. Whitten's notes state that

tilapia was introduced to Indonesia in 1939 and then

in 1951 it was introduced to lakes in Sulawesi,

subsequently becoming an invasive fish and a threat

to local fish. In the last 10 years, several new fish

species have been found in several inland water areas

in Indonesia, such as red devil fish, cichlid fish, sapu-

sapu fish, Amphilophus spp (Lumbanraja &

Nasution, 2024; Ohee et al., 2020; Suryandari et al.,

2021; Umar et al., 2015). The appearance of these fish

is thought to be due to human behavior that

intentionally or unintentionally releases them in

inland water areas in Indonesia.

Recorded on May 31, 1996, there are 1032 species

of freshwater fish in Indonesia (Kottelat & Whitten,

1996b), while other records mention 1300 species of

fish and 90 species of crabs (Kottelat & Whitten,

1996a). The number and scientific names keep

changing because they have to be adjusted with new

discoveries. Some endemic fishes are under threat of

extinction, in Sumatra 14 endangered freshwater fish

species were identified, an estimated 8% of the 1300

endangered freshwater fishes. The number and

scientific names keep changing because they have to

be adjusted with new discoveries. Some endemic

fishes are under threat of extinction, in Sumatra 14

endangered freshwater fish species were identified,

an estimated 8% of the 1300 endangered freshwater

fishes (Kartamihardja, 2014; Syafei, 2017). Data

released by the International Union for Conservation

(IUCN) in 1990 fish species in Sulawesi consisted of

27 taxa from 5 tribes, and all of them urgently need to

be protected because they are in endangered status.

Table 2: Endangered Indonesian Freshwater Fish Species

Listed on the IUCN Red List Of Threatened Animals

(IUCN-The World Conservation Union, 1990). (Scarcity

category abbreviation: Ex = Extinct; E = Endangered; V =

Vulnerable; R = Rare; I = Indeterminate; K = Insufficiently

Known; T = Threatened; CT = Commercially Threatened).

Nation, Tribe, and Type

Name

English Name

(Common

Name)

Category

of Scarcity

Geographic

Distribution

ugilogobius latifrons - V Sulawesi

ugilogobius n.sp - V Sulawesi

Stupidogobius flavipinnis - V Sulawesi

Tamanka sarasinorium Sarasin's Goby V Sulawesi

Weberogobis amandi Poso Bungu E Sulawesi

Source: International Union for Concervation pada

(IUCN).

From several sources there are several endemic

fish species that are threatened with extinction. In

Sumatra, there are Betta burdigala, B. chloropharynx

(only found in Bangka), B. miniopinna and B.

spilotogena (only found in Bintan), Neolissochilus

thienemanni (only found in Toba), Poropuntius

tawdrensis and Rasbora tauarensis (Wargasasmita et

al., 2002). In Tempe Lake, South Sulawesi, the status

of iktiofauna is dominated by introduced fish such as

anabas, caranx, chana, oreochromis, glossogobius,

etc. Some endemic fish can no longer be found (Dina

et al., 2019), such as tinhead fish (Aplocheilus

panchax), julung-julung (Dermogenys pusilla), bete-

bete (Karalla dussumieri), and cecopong (Lagusia

micrachantus). Currently, the remaining / bungo and

tambakan fish are endemic fish whose conditions are

decreasing, even for tambakan fish species are no

longer found in Tempe Lake.

3.1.3 Pollution

Various community activities around water areas can

disrupt the sustainability of inland water areas, posing

a real threat to the sustainability of fisheries

resources. Pollution that occurs is caused by human

activities in aquatic areas and in land areas.(Juwana

et al., 2024; Kurnianto et al., 2019). Cage cultivation

in the lake area contributes to biochemical

contamination of fish feed. The existence of fish

cages has an impact on damage to the Lake Toba

ecosystem such as deteriorating water quality and the

threat of extinction of several fish species (Hebron et

al., 2022; Hutajulu & Harahap, 2023; Siregar, 2008).

Poor water quality is also caused by microplastic

contamination (Haribowo et al., 2024; Henny et al.,

2022; Ilmi et al., 2023; Syamsu et al., 2024), rivers

with heavy metal contamination are also found in

Indonesia (Sukarjo et al., 2023). Data released by the

Central Bureau of Statistics in 2023, out of 111 rivers

sampled, only 8.1% were fit for consumption.

The agricultural sector also contributes to the

pollution of inland water areas. The use of chemical

fertilizers and pesticides in agricultural areas leaves

residues that flow into water areas. Agriculture in

Indonesia is generally located close to water

resources such as lakes, rivers and swamps. With the

amount of land and massive use, the residue from

fertilizer use will flow carried by rain and accumulate

in water areas.

3.1.4 Modification and Conversion of

Aquatic Areas

The dynamics of rapid development contribute to

environmental damage. The increase in population

and the increasingly complex needs of human life,

one of which has an impact on the increasing need for

space both for housing and other supporting areas

such as education, health, economy, recreation and

entertainment facilities, and agricultural and

plantation areas. This encourages the community and

government to carry out land use change to support

development and as a response to the rate of

population growth. Land use by each development

activity will change the environmental order, for

example from forest areas to new areas. This will

have an impact on changes in environmental

sustainability such as decreasing the quality of clean

water, disrupting the life cycle of certain habitats in

an ecosystem.

Land conversion is a problem that occurs in

almost all water areas. Land use change in upstream

areas such as forest conversion (deforestation) into

plantation and settlement areas has a major impact on

fisheries resources. Studies on land use change found

impacts such as increased peak discharge, inter-

seasonal discharge fluctuations, surface flow

coefficients, and flooding and drought (Nasrullah &

Kartiwa, 2010).

The modification of water areas also has a serious

impact on fish resources. The construction of dams,

canals, damming of rivers to become reservoirs has

fragmented rivers. This prevents fish from spawning

towards the sea, which in turn destroys the

sustainability of the fish population. The change of

fish habitat from running water to stagnant water also

has a serious impact on the sustainability of fish

resources, such changes have the effect of shrinking

the biodeversity of riverine fish and favoring

lacustrine fish. (Rahardjo, 2012). Dam construction

also has an impact on the decline of fish populations

(Fung et al., 2019; Kelkar, 2023; Marini et al., 2020).

3.1.5 Socio-Economic Issues

Inland water areas are narrow areas and are very

prone to ecosystem changes such as siltation due to

Paradigm of Inland Fisheries Resources Management: An Environmental Sociology Review

sedimentation and drought, narrowing, and

decreasing water quality.Capture fisheries are

activities that are generally found in inland fisheries

resources, aquaculture is only an option for some

people because it is related to the capital to start the

business. As a common pool resource, it opens up

opportunities for anyone to carry out activities. One

of the disadvantages of open resources is the

difficulty of monitoring (Barnes, 2009), and the

possibility of social exclusion.

Weak governance, including supervision, makes

it impossible for joint and continuous utilization to

cause damage, this event can be called "tragedy of the

commons"(Chawla et al., 2022; Hardin, 1968).

Common resources are vulnerable to

overexploitation, and do not receive attention (Thiele,

2014). Hardin explained that every human being (is a

rational being) seeks to maximize profits. Illustrating

it with a shepherd, the shepherd will consciously ask

questions about the benefits to him of each additional

farm animal. In that case Hardin suggests that the

question contains utility which has a positive and

negative component. The positive component is a

function of the additional livestock and the sale value,

hence the positive utility increases by 1. The negative

component is a function of the additional livestock,

since the effect of excess livestock is shared by all

herders, the negative utility for the herder is only a

fraction. If the partial utility components are

combined, then a rational herder would conclude that

the most rational way to maximize benefits is to add

livestock. While this would certainly be the rational

choice of any herder, it is the beginning of the tragedy

of the commons. We can imagine that if the herder is

in one pasture, then the increase in the number of

children's livestock exceeds the carrying capacity of

the environment.

In the context of inland fisheries, the tragedy of

the commons is over fishing, water pollution. Every

fisherman will consciously maximize the catch or

cultivation production. Catching 1 mother fish will

not have an impact, because there are still many other

mother fish. It will be devastating if it is done by

many fishermen and done repeatedly. It is the same

with aquaculture, biochemical contamination does

not have a big effect if the number of ponds is small,

but what happens is that ponds are the choice for most

fishermen. What happens is that biochemical

contamination is high and pollutes the water. This

includes water pollution from domestic and

agricultural waste. Initially household waste was

generated by a few households, the water flow would

purify it every 10 miles. But as the population

continues to grow, the amount of waste generated is

much higher than the water's ability to purify the

waste.

Next is social exclusion, which takes place

through privatization. The process takes place within

complex power relations consisting of coercive

regulation (Li, 2014), markets, and moral legitimacy.

Social exclusion through restrictions on access,

restrictions on individuals and groups (Silver, 2019).

The impact of social exclusion is community

resistance such as destruction, and poverty due to lack

of access to resources. The poverty of fishermen is

not only caused by social exclusion, there are several

factors such as policy, production inconsistency,

geographical isolation, limited capital, exploitative

social relations, and low income (Retnowati, 2011).

Privatization of resource assets by the state is the

management of traditional natural resource

management (Adger et al., 2005).

3.2 Practice Management

The management and protection of inland fisheries

areas is not only a matter for the government.

Communities from various elements can take a role

according to their capacity. The government has a

role as a regulator through protection and

management policies. The Government of the

Republic of Indonesia regulates the protection and

management of fisheries resources through various

policies at the central to regional levels. At the central

government level, it is specifically regulated in

various regulations such as (1) Undang-Undang

Nomor 31 Tahun 2004 tentang Perikanan; (2)

Undang-Undang Nomor 23 Tahun 2014 tentang

Pemerintahan Daerah; (3) Undang-Undang Nomor 7

Tahun 2016 tentang Perlindungan dan

Pemberdayaan Nelayan, Pembudi Daya Ikan, dan

Petambak Garam; (4) Peraturan Pemerintah Nomor

60 Tahun 2007 tentang Konservasi Sumber Daya

Ikan; (5) Peraturan Pemerintah Nomor 50 Tahun

2015 tentang Pemberdayaan Nelayan Kecil dan

Pembudidaya Ikan Kecil; (6) Peraturan Pemerintah

Nomor 28 Tahun 2017 tentang Pembudidayaan Ikan;

(7) Peraturan Menteri Kelautan Dan Perikanan

Republik Indonesia Nomor 41/PERMEN-KP/2014

Tentang Larangan Pemasukan Jenis Ikan Berbahaya

Dari Luar Negeri Ke Dalam Wilayah Negara

Republik Indonesia; (8) Peraturan Menteri Kelautan

Dan Perikanan Republik Indonesia Nomor 18 Tahun

2021 tentang Penempatan Alat Penangkapan Ikan

Dan Alat Bantu Penangkapan Ikan Di Wilayah

Pengelolaan Perikanan Negara Republik Indonesia

Dan Laut Lepas Serta Penataan Andon

enangkapan Ikan.

ICHELS 2024 - The International Conference on Humanities Education, Law, and Social Science

Similar to the central government, local

governments have also issued various regulations to

regulate management and protection, for example in

South Sulawesi with South Sulawesi Provincial

Regulation Number 1 of 2021 concerning Protection

of Fisheries Resources; Central Sulawesi with Central

Sulawesi Provincial Regulation Number 04 of 2014

concerning Lake Management; Agam Regency, West

Sumatra with a Regional Regulation on the

Management of Maninjau Lake Area Sustainability.

Collaboration in the sustainable management of

inland fisheries resources also places the community

as the main actor. The community is the beneficiary

so that the impact of damage can be directly felt. In

various regions, communities have felt the damage to

inland aquatic ecosystems. Communities around

Lake Limboto began to abandon their fishing

activities due to the deteriorating condition of the

lake. People's livelihoods are no longer fully

dependent on the lake, people do not have permanent

jobs, they work according to the season and the lake

surface (Baga et al., 2024).

Every community has governance that comes

from local wisdom. Such governance is usually

institutionalized in customary rules, deliberations,

whether written or not. Communities on the coast of

Tempe Lake, South Sulawesi, in managing the lake

are governed by a set of rules that regulate the

method, time and place of fishing. The rules are called

Ade' Assamaturuseng (customs that are obeyed

together) in which there are meanings of preservation,

social justice, manifestations of trust practices, and

social justice (S. Tabbu & Amrullah, 2022). In the

district of Lima Puluh Kota, West Sumatra Province,

the community preserves fishery resources with the

system of “Lubuk Larangan” (Yuliaty et al., n.d.)

which is a regulation that establishes areas that are

prohibited from fishing within a certain period of

time. Communities in Lake Toba play a role in

protecting the lake ecosystem from the threat of red

devil fish. Communities participate in catching red

devil fish and increase their understanding of the

impact of red devil fish on the lake ecosystem

(Lumbanraja & Nasution, 2024).

3.3 Paradigm of Natural Resource

Management

The paradigm of natural resource management is

closely related to a country's development paradigm.

After the Second World War, the developmentalism

paradigm emerged as a new paradigm introduced by

the United States. This paradigm views that third

world countries are countries that are in a position of

underdevelopment so that they need to get support to

improve these conditions. The development paradigm

emphasizes 4 (four) main issues, namely (1) growth,

(capital accumulation), (3) structural transformation,

and (4) the role of government. The logic is that

development can create economic growth, which is

characterized by an increase in per capita income. The

conditions for growth are capital accumulation,

investment and industrialization. These three

methods are very effective in promoting structural

transformation. Structural transformation can be

reflected through the process of modernization in

various aspects, such as changes in subsistence

livelihood patterns to economically oriented

livelihood patterns, or changes in production methods

from traditional to industrialization. For the adherents

of developmentalism, traditional and subsistence

methods are a form of underdevelopment of third

world countries.

Developmentalism is on an anthropocentric

trajectory, its interaction with natural resources is

exploitative. In its interactions, nature is only placed

as a component to satisfy all human needs. The result

is the destruction of ecosystems and the subsequent

decline in the quality of human life. This can be seen

in how fisheries resources are managed. For example,

large-scale cage cultivation that results in decreased

water quality and fish mortality, and the introduction

of fish with the aim of increasing productivity without

and ignoring aspects of sustainability, the use of

banned fishing gear, and uncontrolled fishing.

The study of damage to ecosystems and natural

resources due to the process of development and

modernization was also put forward by Ulrich Beck

in his writing entitled Risk Society: Toward A New

Modernity (Beck, 1992). Beck explains 3 (three)

important concepts in risk society, namely risk.

Reflectivity and the boomera effect. Risk is the

possibility of physical damage caused by

technological processes and other processes such as

social, economic and political processes. Thus, risk

has a close relationship with the systems, models, and

processes of change in society (industrialization,

modernization, development) that determine the level

of risk. Another study explains the curse of natural

resources (Palley, n.d.). The resource curse is a

paradox that occurs in countries with a wealth of

natural resources, but this wealth does not produce

prosperity for its people(Humphreys et al., 2007).

Shiva criticizes the management of natural

resources in developing countries, that the

management practices adopt colonialism practices

(Jati, 2013). He firmly calls it the exploitation

syndrome, through two stages, namely privatization

Paradigm of Inland Fisheries Resources Management: An Environmental Sociology Review

and the establishment of bureaucratic institutions that

legalize the commercialization of public goods.

Privatization can encourage consumptive behavior or

exploitative actions to maximize benefits. to support

privatization, the government bureaucracy legalizes it

through a set of rules.

Natural resource management with the paradigm

of developmentalism will lead to top-down

management, the state has the power to regulate the

management and distribution of the benefits of

natural resources. Top down management presents the

privatization of natural resources, whereas previously

they were communal resources. Shiva criticizes the

top down approach to governance, that top down

natural resource governance places the community

only as implementers without any room to question

why, why, or even protest, which ultimately harms

the community (Shiva, 1988a). Therefore, natural

resource management must be affirmative for the

community, and place the community as a key actor

as well as the state.

The anthoropocentric paradigm coincided with

the beginning of the Enlightenment era in Europe.

There is a boundary between the human body and

nature, the relationship between humans and nature is

in cause and effect, which has an impact on changing

the way of looking at nature. That is, nature is seen as

an entity that aims to fulfill all human needs.

Anthropocentric views are present in human

knowledge systems, one of which is the knowledge

system about food. Humans place land, water, forests

as objects that can be exploited to fulfill human needs.

It got worse when Malthus in the 18th century warned

about the threat of famine due to population growth

that exceeded food availability.

The threat of famine in Malthus' theory can be

said to be one of the triggers for massive exploitation

of nature. The development of agricultural areas

through deforestation, the construction of dams for

agriculture, and the use of science and technology to

spur food production. In the aspect of fisheries,

especially in Indonesia, management with an

anthropocentric face began to appear when the

introduction of fish into

Indonesian waters. Introduced fish are generally

consumer fish that have a relatively large size, have

resistance to new ecosystems, and reproduce quickly.

Introductions have shown positive results with

increased stock availability, but less attention has

been paid to the fact that introduced fish are generally

invasive, threatening populations of endemic species.

There are three dimensions to natural resource

management: social, economic, and biological.

Harmonization of the three dimensions is very

important, carried out by paying attention to the

balance of each dimension. Alternative natural

resource management can be found in the political

ecology paradigm. Political ecology can be defined as

a political study that understands the relationship

between human issues and environmental changes as

a result of the political process. The basic assumption

of political ecology is that holistically politics and the

environment are interconnected, the core of political

ecology is that politics must be directed to understand

the interaction of humans and the environment in

relation to environmental degradation (Campbell,

2018; McCarthy, 2017; Quandt, 2016). Political

ecology provides a critique of the concepts of

political economy that have been established in

developmentalism and have contributed to

environmental change. Political ecology offers an

ecocentrism perspective as a critique and solution to

anthropocentrism. Ecocentrism positions humans and

nature in a reciprocal relationship and need each other

as part of the biosphere community. Humans and

nature are entities that complement and support each

other in a causal relationship through exchanges. The

exchanges between humans and nature consist of

energy, material and information as depicted in the

following Figure 1.

(Dharmawan, 2007).

Figure 1: Exchange of Energy, Matter and Information

between Two Systems. Source: Dharmawan (Dharmawan,

2007)

The figure explains that in the human system there

are five interrelated components: knowledge, values,

population, technology, and social organization. The

ecological system consists of micro-organisms,

infrastructure, animals, plants, water-soil-air. The two

systems interact through exchange. Humans need the

components of the ecological system to survive,

while the ecological system receives waste and

pollution, causing much harm to the earth and its

inhabitants. The exchange should result in

sustainability, as the ecological system provides basic

human needs.

The dimensions of sustainability in the

perspective of political ecology consist of

ICHELS 2024 - The International Conference on Humanities Education, Law, and Social Science

community-based natural resource management and

justice for the environment (Shiva, 1988b).

For Shiva, privatization is the beginning of the

ecological crisis, because it allows actors to exploit

on the basis of ownership, privatization limits the

rights of the community to carry out natural resource

management. The ecological crisis is characterized by

food crisis, scarcity of energy sources, poor quality of

life due to pollution and increasingly narrow living

space, topographical changes due to natural disasters,

biodiversity loss, increasing deviant behavior

(Ahmed, 2020; Dharmawan, 2007; Liodakis, 2018).

The New Order government adopted the concept

of the green revolution, a movement to boost food

productivity packaged in the Panca Usaha Tani

policy. This movement replicated the modernization

of agricultural systems and culture in developing

countries such as Asia and South America. In

Indonesia, panca modernization of agriculture

consists of agricultural intensification, agricultural

extensification, agricultural diversification, and

rehabilitation. Based on this, the five farming efforts

consist of the use of superior seeds, (chemical)

fertilization, irrigation, pest eradication, and

organized planting techniques. The results were very

significant in increasing production. But behind these

results, the policy left environmental problems, such

as population decline and extinction of some species

due to the use of pesticides, river water pollution,

social inequality, and capitalization of rural

livelihoods. The policy was formulated in a very

authoritarian government situation, there was no

room for the community to be involved in policy

making. In addition, the policies that were

implemented reduced the local knowledge of the

community about the food system and the knowledge

of the community in preserving the environment. The

green revolution paved the way for legalized

privatization by the government and neglected

environmental justice.

The exchange mechanism in the previous figure is

not sustainable. Human needs from time to time

continue to increase which exceeds the carrying

capacity of the environment. Humans then develop

exploitative adaptive mechanisms. In the long run,

this will create an ecological crisis. In the object of

inland fisheries resources, the exploitation of fish

continuously and in large quantities will have an

impact on the decline in fish populations. As a result,

to fulfill the need for fish, fish fry will also be caught

for consumption. Another example is, the choice to

introduce fish as a way to meet the needs of increasing

fish consumption in an area, a new type of fish will

certainly have an impact on the existing ecosystem.

Ostorm describes three models of natural resource

management, namely the state way, maerket way, and

common pool resources (Ostrom, 1990). The states

way is state-centered natural resource management,

equally distributing the results of natural resource

wealth to the community, but limiting other actors to

participate in natural resource management. The

second model, the market way, is management that

provides many consumptive choices, while at the

same time tends to be expansive to commodify public

goods into private goods. The third and alternative

model, common pool resuorces, is implemented by

redistributing the benefits of natural resources in a

fair and sustainable manner to the community.

The alternative offered by political ecology is a

synergy between the state, society, educational

institutions, and academics. This synergy is a solution

to policies that are state-centric, not top down. Open

access for cross-sector participation. The state has a

role in shaping natural resource management

regulations, in the formation process involving other

parties as users. The interests of each actor can be

accommodated, including the interest to create

environmental justice.

The alternative offered by political ecology is a

synergy between the state, society, educational

institutions, and academics (Cowx & Portocarrero

Aya, 2011).

This synergy is a solution to policies that are state-

centric, not top down. Open access for cross-sector

participation. The state has a role in shaping natural

resource management regulations, in the formation

process involving other parties as users. The interests

of each actor can be accommodated, including the

interest to create environmental justice.

Fisheries resources have long been stressed

beyond their carrying capacity, leaving them

vulnerable to ecological crises. Current practices

focus only on the economic aspect of increasing fish

production. This has neglected the social and

biological aspects. Activities have centered on efforts

to increase catch and aquaculture yields, for example

by introducing high-value fish species, restocking,

and expanding aquaculture areas. To reduce the

pressure on fisheries resources, policies should not

only be centered on efforts to increase fisheries

yields, social and biological aspects must get the same

intervention. In the social aspect, for example,

improving the welfare of fishermen as the main

beneficiaries in fulfilling basic needs, and providing

equal access to the utilization of natural resources. No

less important is the recognition of local knowledge

and local wisdom in management. In the biological

aspect, the policies set should pay attention to

Paradigm of Inland Fisheries Resources Management: An Environmental Sociology Review

sustainability aspects such as regulation of fishing

gear, types of fish cultivated, and regulation of fishing

time.

4 CONCLUSION

Indonesia's inland fisheries resources are facing an

ecological crisis. There are four problems faced,

namely uncontrolled fishing, degradation of endemic

species, pollution, problems in the socio-economic

aspect. If this condition continues, food security from

inland fisheries resources will not be achieved.

Management so far has been directed at efforts to

increase production and ignore aspects of

sustainability. The use of prohibited fishing gear, fish

introduction without study and supervision, water

contamination with chemicals, and social exclusion in

the utilization of fishery resources are severe

challenges in the management of fishery resources.

Political ecology understands the relationship

between human issues and environmental changes as

a result of political processes. Political ecology is an

alternative in natural resource management, by

integrating the state, society, educational institutions,

and academics.

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