Analysis of the Current Situation and Treatment Technology of

PPCPs in Wastewater

Jiayi Xin

School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China

Keywords: PPCPs, Water Pollution, Pollution Control.

Abstract: Pharmaceutical and personal care product contaminants (PPCPs) are a representative group of emerging

contaminants. The improvement of human living standards and the development of medical technology have

led to an increase in the accumulation and release of PPCPs in the environment. This paper aims to investigate

the current status of PPCPs pollution and their treatment technology. Currently, there are abundant types of

PPCPs, originating from residences, medical facilities, PPCP producers, etc. The main detection techniques

for PPCPs are UPLC and HPLC, which can detect efficiently and quantitatively.There are high ecological

and environmental risks as well as human health risks associated with the pollution of PPCPs. In addition,

this paper further introduces the new technologies and research related to the removal and control of PPCPs

at home and abroad, which are mainly divided into physical, chemical and biological methods, and analyzes

the scenarios and limitations of each method. Finally, the challenges and problems of PPCPs pollution control

are analyzed, and the research outlook of applying the emerging removal technologies to actual wastewater

treatment facilities is presented. The study in this paper can provide a reference for further research on PPCPs

treatment.

1 INTRODUCTION

Water resources are an indispensable and important

resource for human production and life. Both water

quantity and quality are crucial indicators of water

resources. Currently, the world's population and

standard of living are increasing, and so is the demand

for water resources. However, the development of

modern production technology and economic level

may have more impacts and pollution on the

environment, thus reducing the quality of water and

the amount of available water resources. In addition

to reducing water consumption, preventing and

combating water pollution has become particularly

important.

Water pollution often originates from the

discharge of domestic, industrial, and agricultural

water into natural water bodies during human

activities, and common conventional pollutants

include pesticides, feces and urine, heavy metals, oil,

and microorganisms. Traditional water treatment

methods, regulations, and standards are often set for

these pollutants. In recent years, new pollutants that

https://orcid.org/0009-0003-2782-6021

are different from conventional pollutants have

appeared on the scene. These include microplastic

pollution due to the long-term use of difficult-to-

biodegrade plastic products, and persistent organic

pollutants (POPs) resulting from the misuse of

chemicals such as pesticides.

New pollutants are more diverse than traditional

pollutants. However, since emerging contaminants

are more difficult to recognize as pollutants due to

their insignificant short-term hazards and often low

concentrations in the environment (Wang, 2022). At

the same time, such pollutants are also often

characterized by easy bioaccumulation, are not easily

degraded and become enriched with the food chain,

posing hazards to the biological chain and human

health (Álvarez-Ruiz, 2021).

Pharmaceutical and personal care products

(PPCPs) are a representative group of emerging

contaminants. PPCPs mainly include painkillers,

antibiotics, sunscreen, cosmetics, etc. Due to the

improvement of human living standards and the

development of medical technology, the number of

people using medicines and personal care products

190

Xin, J.

Analysis of the Current Situation and Treatment Technology of PPCPs in Wastewater.

DOI: 10.5220/0013253600004558

Paper published under CC license (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0)

In Proceedings of the 1st International Conference on Modern Logistics and Supply Chain Management (MLSCM 2024), pages 190-196

ISBN: 978-989-758-738-2

has increased, increasing the accumulation and

emission of PPCPs in the environment. As a result,

this type of pollutant has received wider and wider

attention in the field of environmental protection.

Currently, more than 3,000 types of PPCPs are in use,

and this number is increasing with technological

advances and product development (Arpin-pont,

2016). The unabsorbed portion of the

pharmaceuticals in PPCPs leaves the body through

excretion after they are used, and part of the personal

care products in PPCPs enters into the water after they

have been washed and rinsed. Both go into the

drainage system and are treated in sewage plants

before being discharged into water bodies. However,

as a new pollutant, there is a lack of clear definitions

of discharge indicators in wastewater treatment plants

and loopholes in traditional wastewater treatment

methods. Therefore, most of the PPCPs are still

discharged into water bodies, causing water pollution.

This paper aims to discuss the current situation of

PPCPs pollution, including types, common sources

and related monitoring technologies, and to analyze

the environmental and health impacts of PPCPs

pollution. It briefly summarizes the domestic and

international methods and researches related to the

removal and control of PPCPs, which are mainly

divided into physical, chemical and biological

methods. This will help readers to understand the

current status of PPCPs pollution and the progress of

treatment technology, and provide reference for

further research on PPCPs treatment.

2 BACKGROUNDS OF PPCPS

2.1 Classification of PPCPs

PPCPs can be simply categorized into

pharmaceuticals and personal care products. Within

pharmaceuticals, they can be further categorized into

steroids as well as Nonsteroidal pharmaceuticals

(Ebele, 2017).

For steroids, the representative ones are the

various types of medicinal hormones, such as Estrone,

progesterone, hydrocortisone, phytosterols, etc.

Among the steroids, the sex hormones are related to

sexual function and secondary sexual characteristics.

They are commonly used in the treatment of diseases

such as menstrual disorders, habitual abortion, and

uterine hypoplasia. On the other hand,

adrenocorticotropic hormones have mostly metabolic

regulatory effects, often have antiviral, anti-

inflammatory, and anti-allergic pharmacological

effects, and are used in treating severe toxic infections.

These steroids enter water bodies after use, mainly

through excretion and improper disposal.

Nonsteroidal pharmaceuticals also come in a wide

variety of types, including antibiotics such as

penicillin, tetracycline, and amoxicillin, analgesics

such as paracetamol, anti-inflammatories such as

ibuprofen, diclofenac, and naproxen, as well as

allergy medications and antidepressants. They are

widely used in daily treatment and enter the water

column through pathways similar to steroids.

Among personal care products, the most common

nowadays are UV screens, which include

benzophenone-3, homosalate, octyl-

methoxycinnamate, etc. There are also fragrances,

which may include musk xylol, galaxolide, tonalide,

and so on, as well as disinfectants and conservation

agents.

The main sources of PPCPs in water bodies are

homes, medical facilities, PPCP producers, livestock

farms, and landfills (Adeleye, 2022). In homes, it

enters water bodies with the excretion and washing of

every individual who uses pharmaceuticals and

personal care products. Healthcare facilities are

primarily source of pharmaceuticals, which enter the

water column with the water used to clean medical

devices and with the excretions and washings of

patients. Producers of PPCPs have a variety of routes

of leakage into the water column from their

production lines, resulting in effluents that contain

high levels of specificity and concentration of PPCPs.

In livestock farms, there may be misuse of antibiotics

and other substances, and excretions from the

livestock enter the environment.

On the other hand,

landfills

may discharge PPCPs from leachate into

water bodies, depending on the waste landfilled and

the temperature at the time of landfilling. On the other

hand, wastewater treatment plants often aggregate

wastewater containing PPCPs transmitted from

various sources. Due to the current capacity

limitations of wastewater treatment plants, which are

not set up to treat PPCPs, most of the PPCPs will not

be treated by conventional means and will continue to

flow into natural water bodies.

2.2 Detection Methods of PPCPs

PPCPs have non-negligible hazards, and in addition

to bioaccumulation and toxicity, they are

characterized by a high degree of invisibility. This is

due to the fact that PPCPs, although not easily

degradable, have a relatively low concentration in

water bodies compared to traditional pollutants.

Currently, HPLC and UPLC are the main techniques

used for the detection of pharmaceuticals. This

Analysis of the Current Situation and Treatment Technology of PPCPs in Wastewater

191

detection technique uses a liquid as the mobile phase

and separates the components within a column for the

purpose of detection. Hong et al. established the use

of UPLC in order to rapidly detect more than 60

pharmaceuticals in water and to quantify the drugs

(Hong, 2015). UPLC-APPI-MS is also one of the

techniques used for the detection of personal care

products, Lung et al. developed a method for the

detection of six synthetic musks using this technique

with high sensitivity and chromatographic separation

was achieved in a relatively short period of time

(Lung, 2011). High performance liquid

chromatography-mass spectrometry is also one of the

main techniques used for the detection of personal

care products, Lu Jing et al. developed a method for

the determination of 19 PPCPs in water using this

technique (Lu, 2019). HPLC-MS and UPLC-MS

have shown high efficiency and accuracy in

determining the concentration of PPCPs, but as more

and more PPCPs are being used and entering into the

water column, there are still many compounds that

need detection methods with high efficiency and high

sensitivity.

3 ENVIRONMENTAL AND

HEALTH IMPACTS OF PPCPS

3.1 Ecological Impact

PPCPs that have not been removed by wastewater

treatment enter natural water bodies, where the large

volume of natural water has a dilution effect, and

where the concentration of PPCPs will be lower than

that measured at the wastewater treatment plant.

Despite of the low concentration, the characteristic of

PPCPs that deserves our attention is that it is detected

in a very wide range. In addition to natural water

bodies, PPCPs have been detected in algae, shellfish,

shrimps, crabs, fish, and even birds, and they can be

transported and distributed along the food chain in

living organisms. In addition, PPCPs exhibit

inhibitory effects on the growth of algae and adverse

effects on the ability of some organisms to reproduce.

Due to its bio-accumulative and hazardous nature and

the pseudo persistence caused by its continuous

release into the environment, PPCPs are susceptible

to ecological impacts.

He et al. found that sulfadiazine (SDZ) and

triclocarban (TCC) adversely affected the

reproduction of microorganisms such as Daphnia

magna in water bodies, and that TCC was easily

enriched in Daphnia magna (He, 2023). The

concentration of PPCPs in water bodies has not

caused extreme effects on the growth and

reproduction of microorganisms in water bodies.

However, it is foreseeable that if PPCPs continue to

be discharged uncontrolled into the natural

environment, when their concentration reaches a

certain level, the inhibitory effect on the reproduction

of microorganisms in the water bodies is too strong,

and it may cause destructive impacts on the microbial

population structure. Some studies have evaluated the

environmental risk of PPCPs. Nie et al. used the RQ

model to evaluate the environmental risk of estrogen

in the Yangtze River estuary, which expressed a

moderate, or even partly high, environmental risk in

different seasons (Nie, 2015). PPCPs not only affect

the ecosystems, but also pose a threat to human health

through the ecosystems.

3.2 Human health risks

While PPCPs enter the food chain in the water

environment and enter the bodies of animals, it may

also migrate into the soil environment and accumulate

in crops. The PPCPs that humans release into the

natural environment may end up back on human’s

own tables or even in human bodies, posing health

risks. On the one hand, a large portion of PPCPs are

often disease-specific or designed for topical use, and

they have the property of disrupting the normal

healthy human endocrine system and cannot

accumulate in the body over time. For example,

medicines such as steroids may interfere with the

body's normal hormone metabolism. Personal care

products such as synthetic fragrances have been

clinically observed to affect the central nervous

system at certain concentrations (Yang, 2010).

On the other hand, the misuse of PPCPs such as

antibiotics has led to the persistence of low

concentrations of pharmaceuticals in the environment,

which is largely responsible for the emergence of

drug-resistant genes in bacteria, which are also passed

on as bacteria proliferate (Storteboom, 2010). The

occurrence of drug-resistant bacteria is a test for the

human healthcare system, which means that even

colds may be more difficult to cure, and doctors need

to be more careful in terms of the number of types of

drugs they prescribe. The threat that PPCPs pollution

can pose to human health can no longer be ignored

and deserves more attention.

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4 TREATMENT TECHNOLOGY

OF PPCPS

PPCPs pollution control technology can be

categorized into physical, chemical and biological

treatment technologies through the methods used.

Physical treatment methods do not change the

chemical properties of PPCPs substances, such as

adsorption method. They are usually simple, flexible,

and have few by-products, and are suitable for

wastewater with relatively high concentrations of

pollutants. Chemical treatment methods change the

chemical properties of PPCPs substances. They have

high removal efficiency and complete degradation.

Biological treatment methods apply microorganisms,

plants and animals for the degradation of pollutants.

They have been widely used in the degradation of

organic pollutants, and in recent years there has been

greater progress in the treatment of PPCPs technology.

They can effectively reduce the toxicity of pollutants

and the quality of the effluent is relatively stable.

4.1 Physical Treatment Methods

Physical treatment methods refer to the removal of

pollutants in the environment by physical means and

do not change the chemical nature of the pollutants.

Commonly used physical treatment methods include

sedimentation, filtration and flotation. The principle

of the precipitation method is that the relative density

is different, thus separating the suspended substances

in the liquid. The principle of the filtration method is

to use porous filter media, thereby retaining the

suspended particles in the liquid. The principle of the

flotation method is to pass air as a carrier in order to

remove pollutants in water that have a density similar

to that of water. However, the concentration of PPCPs

in water is usually small and dissolved in water, so

physical adsorbents need to be introduced in order to

achieve removal using physical treatment methods.

Common physical adsorbents are activated carbon,

biochar, graphene-based adsorbents, carbon

nanotubes, etc. (Ayati, 2023). Javier et al.

investigated the adsorption performance of powdered

activated carbon (PAC) as an adsorbent for four

antibiotics in water bodies, and the adsorption

performance for different antibiotics expressed

different adsorption capacities, with the removal of

enrofloxacin at 28% and sulfadiazine at 67% at the

adsorbent concentration of 100 mg/L. For antibiotics

present in trace quantities in the water column, PAC

showed an effective removal capacity (Berges, 2021).

Shin et al. investigated the adsorption properties of

NaOH-activated biochar (BC) from spent coffee

wastes as an adsorbent for pharmaceuticals in water

such as naproxen, diclofenac, and ibuprofen, and the

chemically activated BC had a stronger adsorption

capacity compared to normal BC (Shin, 2021).

The physical adsorption treatment method is

simple to apply and has demonstrated effective

removal of PPCPs substances with fewer by-products.

However, it should be noted that the adsorbent needs

subsequent regeneration treatment. From the study, it

can be seen that the removal effect is closely related

to the type of the adsorbent and pollutants, and the

removal rate is relatively limited, which is more

suitable as a pre-treatment of a wastewater treatment

plant, or for the case of a single type of pollution.

4.2 Chemical Treatment Methods

Chemical treatment methods require changing the

chemical properties of the contaminant to achieve the

purpose of removing the contamination. Commonly

used chemical methods include chemical

precipitation, which is similar to physical

precipitation, with the difference being that the

pollutants are recovered and removed through

chemical means by making them easier to precipitate.

In addition to this, there are electrolysis, oxidation,

photocatalysis and other chemical treatment methods

to degrade the pollutants in the water body, so that the

pollutants are harmless.

Peng et al. prepared CuZnAl-layered double

hydroxide and examined its performance for

photocatalytic degradation of Naproxen under UV

irradiation, and the removal efficiency of Naproxen

was up to 98.25% under the optimum conditions they

tested, i.e., pH 9.0 and catalyst dosage of 0.25 g/L

(Peng, 2022). Luo et al. used the UV365-

LED/chlorine process for the degradation and

removal of metronidazole with degradation

efficiency up to 90.6%, and it was also found that

increasing the intensity of UV light, the amount of

chlorine and decreasing the pH could help in the

degradation efficiency of metronidazole (Luo, 2023).

Li et al. established a new electrochemical peroxone

process, which can realize electrogenerated H2O2/O3

and can efficiently electrochemically decompose

ibuprofen (Li, 2024).

Chemical treatment technology can reach a high

removal rate and complete degradation of pollutants.

Photocatalytic degradation due to its environmentally

friendly characteristics, has gained widespread

attention in recent years, but it is difficult to apply to

larger-scale wastewater treatment. Ozone oxidation

treatment is also efficient but relatively costly.

Analysis of the Current Situation and Treatment Technology of PPCPs in Wastewater

193

Chemical treatment technologies usually cost high

and are complicated to apply.

4.3 Biological Treatment Methods

Biological treatment methods, on the other hand,

introduce biological means in the process of

removing pollutants, mainly utilizing the metabolism

of microorganisms to absorb or degrade pollutants in

water. Microbial treatment methods can be simply

divided into aerobic biological treatment and

anaerobic biological treatment, but also often used in

conjunction with the two. Biochemical tanks are

currently one of the main treatment units in the

sewage treatment plant. In addition to

microorganisms, a part of plants and animals can also

be used as pollutant absorption treatment, often used

in artificial wetlands.

Mokhtariazar et al. compared the ability of two

technologies, Membrane bioreactor (MBR) and MBR

with fixed-bed packing media (FBMBR), to remove

Naproxen, and demonstrated that FBMBR has a

higher efficiency for the removal of PPCPs

represented by Naproxen (Mokhtariazar, 2024).

Iliopoulou et al. developed a system that combined

strictly anaerobic MBBR and aerobic MBR, which

was effective for the removal of metronidazole

(MTZ), trimethoprim (TMP), sulfamethoxazole

(SMX) , and valsartan (VAL), can achieve removal

efficiencies of more than 65% and biotransformation

is the main principle for the removal of these PPCPs,

while Bacteroidetes are the dominant

microorganisms in this system (Iliopoulou, 2023).

The biological treatment methods have a stable

system, the effluent water quality is also stable, and it

can effectively reduce the toxicity of pollutants.

Compared with the traditional activated sludge

method, MBR technology has obvious removal effect

on PPCPs pollutants, but the cost is also greatly

increased. Artificial wetlands, phytoremediation and

other methods are less costly and environmentally

friendly but are susceptible to environmental climate

and other factors, and are relatively less efficient.

5 CHALLENGES AND

PERSPECTIVES OF

POLLUTION CONTROL OF

PPCPs

Since the concept of PPCPs has come into the

limelight, more attention has now been paid to its

pollution control, and a large number of studies have

been conducted on the detection and removal of

various types of PPCPs pollutants. In terms of

pollutant detection, the main technical challenge

faced by the research initially is that PPCPs usually

exist in trace amounts in the aqueous environment

and are relatively difficult to detect. With the

introduction of UPLC, HPLC and other detection

methods, the difficulty of trace detection has been

reduced. The new challenge is to find and identify the

pollutants with high ecological risk in the water body.

In the face of the rich variety of PPCPs pollutants,

there is a need to identify which ones require our

immediate attention and control.

Current studies have focused on several common

types of PPCPs contaminants, mainly

pharmaceuticals, such as Naproxen and ibuprofen,

and relatively little research has been conducted on

personal care products. Different pollution control

methods have different removal effects for different

PPCPs contaminants, and the research on removal

methods is still far from adequate in the case of

increasing types of PPCPs. In addition, most of the

pollution control methods are highly targeted, and it

is difficult to find a generalized control method. In the

face of the complex pollution of the water

environment, how to apply these methods to achieve

the best PPCPs pollution control efficiency at a lower

cost is also a difficult problem.

Wastewater treatment plants, as the core of urban

drainage systems, are responsible for the removal of

most PPCPs. Therefore, future research should focus

on how to apply emerging removal technologies to

actual wastewater treatment facilities, as well as

upgrading existing treatment processes to enable

them to effectively respond to the challenges of novel

pollutants. Through interdisciplinary cooperation and

technological innovation, pollution control of PPCPs

will be able to achieve better results.

6 CONCLUSIONS

PPCPs are potentially hazardous emerging

contaminants that deserve attention and in-depth

study. In this paper, the current status of PPCPs

contamination is first introduced, and the types of

PPCPs are discussed from pharmaceuticals and

personal care products, as well as the common

sources. The concentration of PPCPs in water is

usually trace, and the commonly used detection

methods are HPLC and UPLC, which can achieve

high efficiency and high sensitivity. The pollution of

PPCPs has high ecological and environmental risks as

well as human health risks. In terms of PPCPs

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removal technology, the adsorption method, which is

commonly used in physical treatment methods, is

simple and has fewer by-products, but the removal

effect is related to the type of application, which is

suitable for pre-treatment or simple pollutants.

Chemical treatment methods can completely degrade

pollutants, but the application is complex and costly,

while photocatalytic degradation is suitable for small-

scale wastewater treatment. Biological treatment

methods have a stable system, can reduce toxicity,

and the effluent quality is stable, but the MBR method

is costly, and the artificial wetland method is

susceptible to climate, so they need to be adapted to

local conditions. Understanding the current status of

PPCPs pollution and treatment technology can

provide a reference for further research on PPCPs

removal. Future research on PPCPs pollution control

should aims to discover and identify PPCPs pollutants

with high ecological risks and apply emerging

treatment technologies to actual wastewater treatment

facilities to face the challenges of emerging

contaminants.

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