The Investigation of Layer 2 Blockchain Technologies for

Decentralized Applications

Yuchun Yi

School of Electrical and Information Engineering, North China Electric Power University, Beijing, China

Keywords: Layer 2 Blockchain, Decentralized Applications, Ethereum, Rollups.

Abstract: Layer 2 blockchain technology plays a pivotal role in enhancing the scalability and efficiency of existing

blockchain frameworks. It acts as a crucial layer atop base blockchains, enabling rapid, cost-effective

transactions crucial for Decentralized Applications (DApps) while preserving the security and

decentralization of the primary blockchain. This review dives deep into the realm of Layer 2 blockchain

technologies, shedding light on their significant role in the development and operation of DApps. It kicks off

with a thorough exposition of the conceptual underpinnings of Layer 2 solutions, paving the way for a detailed

examination of specific implementations across major blockchain platforms like Bitcoin and Ethereum. The

paper explores how the most recent advancements in Layer 2 technologies are revolutionizing DApps,

offering a balanced discussion of both the benefits and constraints these technologies bring to the table. A

notable aspect of the paper is its focus on the distinct strategies employed by different platforms in integrating

Layer 2 solutions. Furthermore, it provides illustrative examples of various DApps that have reaped the

rewards of Layer 2 technologies, thus underscoring their wide-ranging applicability and immense potential in

elevating the performance and user experience of decentralized systems. The paper wraps up with a forward-

looking perspective, envisioning the future trajectory of Layer 2 technologies. Efficient cross-chain

interactions, state-of-the-art privacy enhancements, and smart contract execution optimization are some of

the technologies that will further revolutionize the blockchain.

1 INTRODUCTION

Blockchain technology has been hailed as a

transformative force for decentralization in digital

transactions. The inception of Layer 1 blockchains

brought forth a new paradigm of trustless and secure

transactions. However, with the expansion of

Decentralized Applications (DApps), the demands on

blockchain infrastructure have increased, exposing

the limitations in scalability and throughput. Layer 2

technologies are engineered to surmount these

challenges by building atop the foundational Layer 1

to enable scalable, efficient, and cost-effective

transactions, which deserves more attention.

Gangwal et al. (2023) discuss each Layer 2

protocol class in detail and elucidate their respective

approaches, salient features, requirements, etc.

Jourenko et al. (2019) categorize the protocols related

to cryptocurrency Layer 2 scalability and discuss their

advantages and disadvantages. In addition to

Channels, Sidechains, Rollups, Cross Chains, or

Hybrid Solutions like Arbitrum, and other

technologies that increase the transaction throughput

and scalability of a blockchain network (Miller et al.

2019, Tochner et al. 2019, Back et al. 2014, Belchior

et al. 2021, Teutsch & Reitwießner 2019, Kalodner et

al. 2019), Xu et al. (2023) present a new Layer 2

blockchain called W3Chain, which is promising to

deliver high Transactions Per Second (TPS) while

defeating the scalability trilemma of a public

blockchain. The Layer 2 Atomic Cross-Blockchain

Function Calls (LTACFC) protocol is designed to

enable composable programming across Ethereum

blockchains, which allows for inter-contract and

inter-blockchain function calls to be synchronous and

atomic (Robinson & Ramesh 2020). With the

development of Layer 2 technology, DApps have

gained a wider range of application scenarios. These

applications include Decentralized Finance (DeFi),

gaming, artwork and Non-homogenized Tokens

(NFTs), supply chain management, etc. (Sunny et al.

2022). Layer 2 solutions enable these applications to

run faster and more efficiently while reducing

transaction costs. Xu et al. (2022) introduce L2chain,

326

Yi, Y.

The Investigation of Layer 2 Blockchain Technologies for Decentralized Applications.

DOI: 10.5220/0012837400004547

Paper published under CC license (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0)

In Proceedings of the 1st International Conference on Data Science and Engineering (ICDSE 2024), pages 326-333

ISBN: 978-989-758-690-3

a layer-2 blockchain framework designed to scale

DApp transactions while maintaining a concise on-

chain state digest for integrity. A great number of

DApps use Layer 2 technology to increase transaction

speeds and reduce costs, especially on highly

congested and expensive blockchains such as

Ethereum. Rana et al. (2023) propose a decentralized

model for using smart contracts to safeguard digital

evidence to overcome these issues and analyze how

the model is used in actual legal systems, law

enforcement organizations, and digital forensics

investigations. Rafaj et al. (2023) propose a DeFi

gaming platform that leverages the benefits of layer 2

solutions to reduce gas fees and improve user

experience. Kucheriya et al. (2023) introduce the

project as an NFT-based game that runs on the

Polygon network (Matic Mumbai Test-net) on layer 2

of the Ethereum Blockchain and is powered by

decentralized Chain link Oracles. Chishti et al. (2023)

propose an instant account settlement process for a

roll-up-based layer-2 blockchain framework that

business service providers can apply in a metaverse

ecosystem for performing micro-transactions.

Singularity DAO is a Layer 2 DeFi solution by

Singularity NET enhancing funding for blockchain

projects through AI and tokenomics, improving token

liquidity (IntelligentHQ 2020). The Polygon's

integration with Life DeFi Wallet boosts transaction

speed and security, lowers fees and allows access to

Polygon's decentralized apps (SyndiGate Media Inc

2023).

Given the rapid progress of Layer 2 technology,

examining the intricacies of it, including a

comprehensive overview of its operational

mechanisms, is pivotal for an understanding of its

application in DApps. This article will elucidate

which DApps are most amenable to which Layer 2

solutions, while assessing the advantages and

limitations of these technologies, which is

instrumental for developers and industry experts in

making informed decisions regarding the optimal

technology for specific applications. The rest of the

paper is structured as follows. Section 2 of this paper

describes the broad framework and technical

development of Blockchain Layer 2 Solutions.

Section 3 introduces and discusses Dapps that have

adopted Blockchain Layer 2 technology.

2 BLOCKCHAIN LAYER 2

SOLUTIONS

2.1 Framework of Layer 2 and Latest

Algorithms

Layer 2 refers to a set of off-chain solutions built on

top of the main net to increase transaction throughput

without sacrificing decentralization or security. Layer

2 builds on top of Layer 1 and can be extended in a

variety of ways without having to change the

underlying blockchain protocol. These include

channels, sidechains, rollups, cross-chain

technologies, hybrid solutions, etc. Notary Schemes,

Blockchain of Blockchains, Bisection Protocols, and

Trusted Execution Environments are various

specialized technologies designed to improve the

transaction throughput and scalability of blockchain

networks. These techniques are used in different ways

to reduce the burden on the main chain or to improve

the efficiency of cross-chain interactions. Based on

the recent review (Gangwal et al. 2023), this paper

aims to further analyze in detail the new layer2

technologies arising from 2021 to 2023. To be more

specific, three aspects including Bitcoin (BTC) Layer

2 solution, Ethereum (ETH) Layer 2 solution and

some other blockchain Layer 2 solutions will be

considered.

Sahoo et al. (2023) present a privacy-preserving

solution for secure payment channel rebalancing in

layer-2 blockchain networks, improving balance

management and preventing transaction failures

using the enhanced HTLC protocol. In another study,

Yee et al. (2022) explore the nuances of blockchain

finality, distinguishing between different types of

finality and emphasizing the importance of

transaction order finality in system states. Massimo

(2023) evaluates the impact of rollup scaling

solutions on Ethereum's layer-2 ecosystem, while

Neiheiser et al. (2023) examine the practical

limitations of Ethereum’s Layer-2. Hong et al. (2022)

introduce PYRAMID, a layered sharding blockchain

system that enhances scalability and cross-shard

transaction efficiency, showing significant

improvements in transaction throughput, especially in

complex cross-shard transactions.

2.2 BTC Layer 2 Solutions

Bitcoin was designed with the goals of security and

decentralization in mind and does not support smart

contracts and DApps like Ethereum does.

Nonetheless, several projects and protocols attempt to

The Investigation of Layer 2 Blockchain Technologies for Decentralized Applications

327

implement some DApps-like functionality on

Bitcoin, often by building a second layer of protocols

on top of Bitcoin. For example, by using the Bitcoin

Lightning Network, it is possible to implement faster,

lower-cost payment channels that are not DApps in

the traditional sense. The Lightning Network is the

earliest and most viable Layer 2 in the crypto world.

BTC's Lightning Network does not go onto the main

network for day-to-day transactions, thus saving on

costly Gas, and if both parties believe they will no

longer be able to transact, they can send a message to

the main network to make the transaction. When they

believe they will no longer trade, they can initiate a

withdrawal command to the mainnet, the signature of

which proves to the BTC mainnet the authenticity of

a series of transactions between the two parties off the

mainnet.

Lightning Network (LN) is a layer-2 protocol that

enables fast Bitcoin transaction processing. However,

it only works well for peer-to-peer micro-payments,

namely, small-amount payments between individual

parties. Wang et al. (2023) propose an LN-based

framework for both peer-to-peer and customer-to-

business payments, the Business-oriented Layer-2

Network (BLN). With BLN, Bitcoin transaction

processing scales much better. Their experimental

results indicate that BLN outperforms LN in terms of

transaction failure rate, transaction fee, and

processing time.

The 2021 Bitcoin Taproot upgrade introduced

Schnorr signatures (Schnorr 1991, Maxwell 2019,

Cragg et al. 2015) and MAST contracts (Kim et al.

2018), enhancing Bitcoin's cross-chain

decentralization. Schnorr signatures, more efficient

than elliptic curve signatures, enable clustering of up

to 1,000 addresses to manage the same asset,

improving privacy and reducing data load. This

breakthrough surpasses Bitcoin's previous 15 re-multi

signature limit, allowing for fully decentralized

signature management. MAST contracts, using

Merkle trees, encrypt complex scripts whose

components don't overlap. These contracts, similar to

smart contracts, require only relevant script

disclosure for transactions, simplifying and securing

operations.

2.3 ETH Layer 2 Solutions

Unlike Bitcoin, which focuses on its role as a digital

gold and store of value and adopts a more

conservative upgrade strategy to ensure the stability

and security of the network, Ethereum has an active

community of developers, with several developers

who can build a variety of complex decentralized

applications on it and experiment with and research

Layer 2 solutions, scaling technologies. Ethernet

adopts a flexible scaling mechanism, which provides

more opportunities for Ethernet to realize Layer 2,

thus realizing the vision of higher throughput and

lower transaction costs. Ethernet's Layer 2 solution

utilizes a variety of technologies, some of the

common ones include Optimistic Rollup, zk-rollup,

Plasma, State Channels, Sidechains and others.

Optimistic Rollup and ZK-Rollup are two

blockchain scaling technologies that both aim to

improve the throughput and scalability of the

blockchain, but differ in their implementation

methods and characteristics. Optimistic Rollup

implements a sidechain on the Ethereum blockchain

that assumes all transactions are valid unless proven

wrong. This hypothetical verification approach

reduces the need for immediate computation and

allows for higher throughput. The advantages are

higher throughput and good compatibility with

Ethereum. Because of the optimistic assumption, it

can process more transactions. Easy integration with

the existing Ethereum ecosystem and smart contracts.

Depends on the security of the Ethereum main chain.

The downside is that if fraud occurs, it takes a while

to submit and confirm proof of fraud, which can lead

to delays and additional transaction costs. And need

to rely on the main chain to ensure the availability of

data.

ZK-Rollup uses Zero-Knowledge Proofs to prove

the validity of all sidechain transactions, rather than

assuming they are valid, as Optimistic Rollup does.

This means that every transaction needs to be verified

in real-time. It offers instant transaction final

certainty, higher security, and data availability.

Thanks to the use of zero-knowledge proof,

transactions can be determined quickly without a long

window of challenge. Zero-knowledge proofs

provide strong security. Since every transaction is

verified, data availability is guaranteed. The

disadvantage is that the calculation needs are high and

there are compatibility problems. Generating zero-

knowledge proofs requires a lot of computing

resources. Integration with existing smart contracts

and the Ethereum ecosystem is more complex. The

cost of developing and deploying ZK-Rollup

technology is relatively high.

Optimism, Arbitrum, Scroll, StarkNet, Polygon

zkEVM, zkSync Era, Blast, Linea, Manta Pacific,

Metis, zkFair, Ola, and Lumoz (formerly opside) are

all Layer 2 extension solutions. This is mainly

achieved by using Optimistic Rollups or ZK-Rollups

technology.

ICDSE 2024 - International Conference on Data Science and Engineering

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2.4 Layer 2 Solutions for Other

Blockchains

In addition to Ether, DApps and their respective layer

2 solutions exist on many other blockchain platforms.

Binance Smart Chain (BSC) is a blockchain with

a multi-chain structure that allows assets to be

transferred between BSC and other compatible

blockchains. BSC supports the Ethereum Virtual

Machine (EVM), which is similar to Ether, so many

of Ether's Layer 2 solutions can also be used on BSC.

In addition, BSC itself has high transaction speeds

and low costs, and Solana is a high-performance

blockchain that already has a high Transactions Per

Second (TPS) of its own. Although Solana is different

from Ether, it is designed to provide high throughput.

It also supports Layer 2 solutions in its ecosystem,

such as Serum, etc.

NEAR Protocol is a blockchain platform designed

to provide developer-friendly smart contracts and

high performance. While NEAR already has high

performance on its own, it also supports Layer 2

technologies such as stateful channels, etc. Avalanche

enables interoperability between different subnets

through its Snowflake Protocol, which supports

broader cross-chain communication. avalanche

supports the creation of customized subnets on which

users can implement high-performance Layer 2

solutions.

Harmony is a blockchain platform dedicated to

delivering high-performance and low-cost

transactions. It supports both on-chain and off-chain

optimization. polka dot is a heterogeneous multi-

chain architecture that facilitates cross-chain

communication and asset transfers by enabling

connectivity between different blockchains through

Relay Chain and Parachains.

Cosmos is an ecosystem with an autonomous

blockchain whose Inter-Blockchain Communication

(IBC) protocol makes it possible for different

blockchains to communicate with each other. Cosmos

is an ecosystem of autonomous blockchains with the

IBC protocol that enables different blockchains to

communicate and exchange value with each other.

Polkadot and Cosmos are two platforms that

implement cross-chain technology, allowing

interactions and asset transfers between different

blockchain networks. By spreading the load across

different blockchains, these platforms can speed up

transaction processing. Cross-chain transactions

allow users to utilize blockchains with lower fees, and

by connecting multiple blockchains, these platforms

increase the capacity and flexibility of the overall

network.

3 APPLICATIONS AND

DISCUSSION

Decentralized applications are applications based on

blockchain technology that run on a decentralized

network rather than a single server. DApps have a

wide range of applications in several domains, and

Layer 2 technology plays a key role in improving

efficiency and scalability in these applications.

Fig. 1, Fig. 2 and Fig. 3 respectively introduce

layer2 technology and corresponding DApps used in

Bitcoin, Ethereum, and other blockchains. First, the

main layer2 technology is introduced, then the new

layer2 technology derived from the main layer2

technology is introduced, and then the corresponding

dapps are analyzed. Some of the new layer2

technologies are still in the development and proposal

stages and have not been widely accepted or

implemented by the community. While some of the

technologies mentioned in Fig. 2 were primarily

developed for Ethereum, the concepts and

frameworks of some technologies can be extended to

other blockchains. Because there are too many

platforms and dapps involved in zk rollups, the part

about zk rollups in Fig. 2 has been simplified.

The Investigation of Layer 2 Blockchain Technologies for Decentralized Applications

329

Figure 1: Layer2 technology and DApps used in Bitcoin (Picture credit: Original).

Figure 2: Layer2 technology and DApps used in Ethereum (Picture credit: Original).

Figure 3: Layer2 technology and DApps used in other blockchain (Picture credit: Original).

ICDSE 2024 - International Conference on Data Science and Engineering

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3.1 Channels

State Channels allow participants to make multiple

transactions outside of the blockchain and ultimately

aggregate state onto the blockchain. Examples

include Sprites and Trinity. Trinity is a state channel

network based on the NEO blockchain designed to

improve the real-time payments, low fees, and

scalability of the NEO network. Sprites is an

optimized state channel technology designed to

reduce the amount of time that funds are locked up in

the payment channel. It does this by introducing a

mechanism called preimage. It is primarily used to

improve payment channel networks, such as flash

networks, especially when processing cross-channel

payments. It reduces the complexity and fund-locking

issues associated with executing payments across

multiple channels, making these networks more

efficient and easier to use. Payment Channels are

stateful channels focused on payment scenarios.

Notable networks include the Lightning Network and

the Raiden Network, which is one of the best-known

payment channel networks and is used by many

Bitcoin payment DApps to process fast, low-cost

micropayments. but is used on the Ether network and

is designed to enable fast, low-fee ERC20 token

transactions.

3.2 Side/Child Chains

Side and child chains enhance DApp scalability by

allowing fast transactions on a parallel chain before

updating the main chain. This is beneficial for large

DApps needing custom blockchain parameters,

especially in gaming or enterprise applications. While

sidechains offer customization and reduced main

chain load, their security may be lower, and

integration with the main chain can be complex.

Polygon (Matic) has evolved from using Plasma and

state channels to implementing Layer 2 solutions like

zk-Rollups and Optimistic Rollups. The SKALE

Network offers a highly customizable Ethereum

scaling solution through containerized virtualization.

Rootstock enables DApps on the Bitcoin network,

and Loom Network excels in social and gaming

applications, hosting games like "CryptoZombies."

The Liquid Network facilitates Bitcoin transactions

with a bidirectional anchoring mechanism,

converting bitcoins to Liquid Bitcoins (LBTC) on its

sidechain and vice versa, aimed at accelerating

transactions and enhancing privacy for financial

institutions.

Axie Infinity is a very popular

blockchain game where players can cultivate, buy,

sell and fight creatures called Axies. It originally ran

on Loom Network, but later migrated to its own

custom sidechain, Ronin. Although it is separate from

the main Ethereum chain, it is connected to the

Ethereum network via Bridge technology, allowing

assets to be transferred between the two networks.

3.3 Cross Chains

Cross-chain technology enables DApps to access the

functionality and assets of multiple blockchains,

which is useful for building complex financial

products, asset management tools, or any service that

needs to utilize the features of multiple blockchains.

Cross-chain technologies allow interoperability

between different blockchain networks. platforms

such as Polkadot and Cosmos allow developers to

create DApps that can run on multiple blockchains by

providing cross-chain smart contract execution.

decentralized exchanges such as Uniswap,

SushiSwap, and Thorchain support the exchange of

assets across multiple blockchains ChainBridge,

RenVM, and Polkadot's Cross-Chain Message

Passing (XCMP) cross-chain bridge allows users to

transfer crypto assets (such as tokens or NFTs) from

one blockchain to another. This not only increases the

liquidity of assets but also extends their availability.

Aave, Compound users can borrow and earn interest

on different blockchains. Some NFT marketplaces

are expanding their functionality, OpenSea, and

Rarible support buying and selling NFTs between

different blockchains.

3.4 Rollups

Decentralized Exchanges (DEXs) Loopring utilizes

zkRollups technology to reduce transaction costs and

increase transaction speeds on Ether. Optimism is an

Ether Layer 2 solution using Optimistic Rollups that

reduces transaction costs and time and has been

adopted by several Decentralized Finance (DeFi)

projects. Immutable X uses zkRollups technology to

provide zero gas fees and instant trading for NFT

transactions for decentralized marketplaces for

artwork, game items, and more. The base is a Layer 2

network built by the $20 billion market cap crypto

giant Coinbase, which primarily utilizes OP Stack

technology to develop Optimistic Rollups on the

Ethereum network. its network node providers

primarily include Blockdaemon, QuickNode and

Blast, Safe Wallet, block browsers Etherscan and

Blockscout, and data indexers The Graph and

Covalent, etc. The base has more native projects,

including Aerodrome developed by Velodrome,

Seamless Protocol, and friend. tech, which have all

The Investigation of Layer 2 Blockchain Technologies for Decentralized Applications

331

become leading projects of Base. become Base's

leading projects. If the focus is on fast trading and

high security, ZK-Rollup may be a better choice. If

cost efficiency and high compatibility are valued,

Optimistic Rollup may be a better fit. Development

teams need to consider the volume of transactions,

security requirements, cost constraints, and technical

capabilities to choose the best technology for their

project. Rollups are unique in that they move data

processing off-chain while keeping the data

committed to the main chain, combining the high

efficiency of off-chain processing with the high

security of the main chain. This balance is not

common in other Layer 2 technologies.

3.5 Hybrid Solutions

Hybrid Layer 2 solutions offer DApps flexibility to

select technologies suited for specific use cases.

Arbitrum, leveraging Optimistic Rollups, increases

throughput and reduces Gas fees, supporting

Ethereum smart contracts and existing DApps like

GMX, Radiant Capital, and Camelot. It also hosts

non-DeFi projects like Treasure DAO, a casual game

emphasizing creativity. TrueBit offloads intensive

tasks from the blockchain, reducing computational

load and transaction costs. It uses Interactive

Verification, where external nodes ensure off-chain

computation accuracy, featuring a gamified

verification process. TrueBit is considered for

applications like Golem, Dogethereum, and Livepeer,

a decentralized streaming platform. Polygon

integrates various Layer 2 technologies, including

Plasma, state channels, zk-Rollups, and Optimistic

Rollups, supporting diverse DApps like Aave

Protocol, Decentral Games, Sandbox, and Uniswap

v2. These applications benefit from Polygon’s high

throughput and low fees. DApps choose Layer 2

solutions based on specific needs with Polygon and

Optimism favored for high-throughput, low-cost

DeFi and NFT platforms. Some like Axie Infinity

may opt for custom sidechains for unique

customization features.

4 CONCLUSION

This paper provided a comprehensive examination of

Layer 2 blockchain technologies and their impact on

DApps. It commenced with an introduction to the

conceptual framework of Layer 2 solutions, followed

by a detailed analysis of their implementations in

Bitcoin, Ethereum, and other blockchain platforms. It

analyzes the application of the latest Layer 2

technology solutions in DApps and also clarifies the

advantages and limitations of Layer 2 technology.

The exploration highlighted the unique aspects and

focal points of each platform's approach to Layer 2

solutions. In the final section, this paper discussed

various DApps, illustrating how Layer 2 technologies

have enabled these applications to overcome

traditional blockchain limitations. The diverse

examples underscored the broad applicability and

potential of Layer 2 solutions in enhancing the

performance and usability of DApps, indicating a

promising direction for the future of decentralized

systems. As the blockchain landscape continues to

evolve, future Layer 2 technologies will focus on

enabling more efficient cross-chain interactions,

integrating advanced privacy enhancements such as

Proof of Zero Knowledge, and optimizing the

execution efficiency and cost of smart contracts,

leading to a wider range of application scenarios,

stronger user privacy protection, and better

performance for DApps.

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