Impact of Non-Ionizing Electromagnetic Waves on Human

Pregnancy and Teratogenicity: A Systematic Review

Desy Armalina

1,2,* a

, Neni Susilaningsih

, Heri Sutanto

and Sunarno

Doctoral Study Program of Medical and Health Science, Diponegoro University, Indonesia

Anatomy-Histology Department Medical Faculty, Diponegoro University, Semarang, Indonesia

Department of Physics, Faculty of Science and Mathematics, Diponegoro University, Semarang, Indonesia

Department of Biology, Faculty of Science and Mathematics, Diponegoro University, Semarang, Indonesia

Keyword: Electromagnetic Wave, Pregnancy, Teratogenic, Systematic Review, Mobile Phone.

Abstract: Electromagnetic waves have increased significantly over the past few years, and one important source is cells.

The average daily time spent on gadgets rose from 4.75 to 11.36 hours. This radiation of the device has

different effects on the most vulnerable groups, including young children, the elderly, and pregnant women;

for example, the risk of abortion increases 1.27-fold when exposed to EMFs above 50 Hz and 16 mG. The

databases Scopus, Cochrane Library (Wiley), Science Direct, the US National Library of Medicine (PubMed),

and another source, Google Scholar, were used to obtain the data. Medical terms were used to obtain the data

as well as "RF," OR "RF-EMFs," AND "phone," OR "mobile phone," AND "radiofrequency, OR "cell-

phone," OR "electromagnetic field," OR "electromagnetic waves," OR "EMF, OR "EMW," OR "non-

ionizing," AND "fetus," AND "pregnant "as keywords. The study report adhered to the PRISMA criteria the

Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews. The study protocol was registered in the International

Prospective Register of Systematic Reviews (PROSPERO) at the National Institute for Health Research (No:

CRD42023475665). The impact of electromagnetic waves on pregnancy includes miscarriage, stillbirth,

congenital defects in newborns, and premature delivery. During pregnancy, the placenta absorbs

electromagnetic field (EMF) radiation from cell phones. This increases fetal temperatures, affecting the

metabolic processes and blood supply to the placenta. Higher prenatal exposure to EMFs might result in a

decrease in the birth weight, head size, head, upper arm, and abdomen, as well as skinfold thickness of the

back, triceps, and abdomen. These findings indicate that pregnant women may have a higher vulnerability to

the impacts of electromagnetic wave exposure, emphasizing the significance of providing customized

guidance and preventive measures for pregnant women.

1 INTRODUCTION

On March 11, 2020, the World Health Organization

declared COVID-19 a global pandemic (Ezpeleta,

Navarro, de la Osa, Trepat, & Penelo, 2020).

Indonesia, the world's fourth most populous country,

is expected to suffer significantly over a longer period

than other less-populated countries. The SARS-CoV-

2 virus and COVID-19 information both spread

widely. One of the easiest and fastest tools for

https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4708-7006

https://orcid.org/ 0000-0003-1960-507X

https://orcid.org/ 0000-0001-7119-9633

https://orcid.org/ 0000-0002-7100-0628

disseminating information is social media. It is a

medley of online spaces for generating and sharing

knowledge, concepts, communications, etc. Thanks to

social media, a lot of COVID-19 information has

surfaced. It allowed for the rapid and widespread

dissemination of public health messages, enabling

people to decide how to stay safe.

The Indonesian government responded to many

situations, offering encouragement to remain at home.

Work From Home is a term we use for employees

Armalina, D., Susilaningsih, N., Sutanto, H. and Sunarno,

Impact of Non-Ionizing Electromagnetic Waves on Human Pregnancy and Teratogenicity: A Systematic Review.

DOI: 10.5220/0013671800003873

Paper published under CC license (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0)

In Proceedings of the 1st International Conference on Medical Science and Health (ICOMESH 2023), pages 311-328

ISBN: 978-989-758-740-5

311

(Djalante et al., 2020). The rapid global connectivity

of people and information during the COVID-19

pandemic illustrates how the world has grown more

digital. (Serra, Lo Scalzo, Giuffrè, Ferrara, &

Corsello, 2021) The previous survey found that

participants' average daily time spent on gadgets

increased from 4.75 to 11.36 hours during the

lockdown (Pachiyappan et al., 2020).

Using modern technology, such as cell phones, the

Internet, radio, and television, requires an integrated

communications antenna. Due to their effects and the

waves, they create, they pose a health danger to

people. Among the vulnerable populations who are

more vulnerable to the effects of these radiations are

children, the elderly, and pregnant women. The use of

cell phones, a potent electromagnetic wave generator,

has greatly expanded in recent years (Ghazanfarpour

et al., 2021). Abortion risk increases 1.27 times when

exposed to EMFs above 50 Hz and 16 mG

(Ghazanfarpour et al., 2021). The previous study

described the effects of 2.4 GHz RF radiation on the

amount of bone and cartilage in the forelimbs during

pregnancy. A significant difference in bone and

cartilage volumes between the experimental and

control groups could be seen (Saghezchi et al., 2019).

Another study found that electromagnetic radiation

affects the male reproductive system, causing

abnormal morphology, decreased motility, increased

peroxidation from oxidative stress, histological

abnormalities in the testes, and occasionally atrophy

of the testicular tissue in spermatozoa. (Journal et al.,

2018). Globally, the COVID-19 epidemic has

profoundly impacted people's lives. Some claim that

the COVID-19 pandemic has made mobile devices

even more crucial for fostering and strengthening

social relationships and general well-being (David &

Roberts, 2021).

When a woman is pregnant, significant

physiologic and immunologic changes occur in her

body to support and protect the developing foetus.

These changes may increase the risk of catching

respiratory viruses for pregnant women and their

foetuses. Pregnant women and their progeny may be

at an increased risk of contracting COVID-19

(Wastnedge et al., 2021). Instructing them to be

extremely strict about following the social distance

behaviour standards. This review evaluates

electromagnetic pregnancy effects in human.

A previous study demonstrated that exposure to

smartphone bluetooth radiation had a substantial

impact on body weight, leading to an increased rate of

pregnancy progression. Although there was no

substantial impact on the overall count of fetuses and

the weight of fetal bodies. The injection of bluetooth

radiation for 15 minutes, 30 minutes, and 60 minutes

did not clearly demonstrate any teratogenic effects

(Fetuses, Fetuses, & April, 2016). Another study

found no association between prenatal exposure to

radiofrequency radiation and child neurodevelopment

for the first three years, but a potential combined effect

of maternal lead exposure and mobile phone use

during pregnancy was suggested (Choi et al., 2017).

This systematic review aims to find out the Impact of

Non-Ionizing Electromagnetic Waves on Human

Pregnancy and the Teratogenicity in the fetus.

2 MATERIALS AND METHODS

The study report adhered to the PRISMA criteria

(Page et al., 2021) the Preferred Reporting Items for

Systematic Reviews. The study protocol was

registered in the International Prospective Register of

Systematic Reviews (PROSPERO) at the National

Institute for Health Research (No:

CRD42023475665).

2.1 Search Strategy

In this systematic review, English language

restrictions were considered in searching the

databases Scopus, Cochrane Library (Wiley), Science

Direct, the US National Library of Medicine

(PubMed), and another source, Google Scholar, were

used to obtain the data. In all articles, references and

reports were confirmed. Medical terms were used to

obtain the data as well as "RF," OR "RF-EMFs,"

AND "phone," OR "mobile phone," AND

"radiofrequency, OR "cell- phone," OR

"electromagnetic field," OR "electromagnetic

waves," OR "EMF, OR "EMW," OR "non-ionizing,"

AND "fetus," AND "pregnant " as keywords.

2.2 Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria

The study's inclusion criteria were limited to women

who had intrauterine pregnancies, singleton

pregnancies, and conceived naturally without the use

of assisted reproductive procedures. The study's

exclusion criteria included the following: studies

without full text access, correspondences and letters

to the editor, a history of chronic diseases, genetic

problems, vaginal hemorrhage, birth defects in prior

pregnancies, and cigarette smoking. Article published

in language other than English were also excluded.

The study included pregnant women (P) as

participants, with the exposure group being pregnant

women who were exposed to non-ionizing radiation

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312

during pregnancy (I), and the control group being

pregnant women who did not receive any non-

ionizing radiation during pregnancy (C). Pregnancy

implications: miscarriage, fetal demise, identification

of other prenatal conditions, placental and amniotic

abnormalities. Impact on the fetus: increased risk of

preterm birth, congenital anomalies, and other birth-

related conditions (O). Cohort studies and systematic

reviews provide evidence for these associations (S).

2.3 Study Selection

The preliminary search produced 23,687 and 84,160

outcomes. The eligibility of these papers was

assessed separately by two authors, according to pre-

specified inclusion and exclusion criteria, while

discrepancies were resolved with a third investigator.

During the initial phase, a total of 94,658 studies were

eliminated from consideration because they were

either irrelevant or duplicated. After evaluating the

titles and abstracts of the remaining papers, a total of

13,189 articles were deemed ineligible for inclusion

in the study and hence excluded. During the

assessment of the complete texts, 437 out of the

remaining 468 articles were disqualified because they

did not meet the criteria for eligibility. In conclusion,

a grand total of 31 eligible articles underwent review

(Figure 1).

2.4 Quality Assessment

The reseachers mentions applying the STROBE

guidelines for critical appraisal of a cohort study and

the evaluation of qualitative studies for the systematic

review paper was conducted using the Joanna Briggs

Institute (JBI) criteria (Aromataris E, Fernandez R,

Godfrey C, Holly C, Kahlil H, 2015). Evaluating the

Risk of Bias in a Cohort Study using the New Castle

Ottawa Scale (NOS) (Bae, n.d.).

2.5 Data Extraction

Two authors independently performed the study

selection and validity assessment, and resolved any

disagreements by consulting a third researcher.

3 RESULT

3.1 Electromagnetic Wave

People are exposed to electromagnetic fields (EMFs)

that are created by both natural and human activity

when they utilize power lines and other electrical

Figure 1. PRISMA Flowchart of selected studies

equipment, as well as when lightning strikes and the

earth's magnetic field (MF) (Lee, Neutra, Hristova,

Yost, & Hiatt, 2002). Heat is produced when the body

absorbs enough its energy. (9) Contemporary

Screening

Full text elimination due to lack

of eligibility criteria ( N= 437)

Studied included in final synthesis

31)

Record identified through other

sources (N= 84.160)

Records Screened ( N= 13.189)

Included

Records removed though duplication (N = 94.658)

Record Identified through

database searching ( N= 23.687 )

Records excluded due to lack of

relevance (N= 1020)

Full text assessed for eligibility

(

N= 468

)

Identification

Impact of Non-Ionizing Electromagnetic Waves on Human Pregnancy and Teratogenicity: A Systematic Review

313

technology necessitates the utilization of a

consolidated communications antenna, such as

cellular devices, the Internet, radio, and television.

The resultant waves had adverse impacts and

threatened people's well-being. The radiation

disproportionately affects vulnerable groups such as

children, the elderly, and pregnant people. The cell

phone is a prominent emitter of electromagnetic

waves, which have experienced a notable rise in

frequency in recent years (Anguera et al., 2013).

There is a chance that energy will be transferred

whenever EMFs fields touch with living tissue,

possibly causing the temperature to rise. Due to their

absorption by the skin and other superficial tissues,

mobile phone nonthermal radiations often only

minimally raise the body temperature of the brain or

other essential organs (Megha, Suryakantrao, Dev, &

Kumar, 2012). Nonthermal mechanisms have a

stronger connection to other tissue changes brought

on by the quantity of absorbed energy than they do to

the actual temperature change (Kıvrak, Yurt, Kaplan,

& Altun, 2017).

According to the World Health Organization,

EMFs primarily contribute to pollutants that harm

human health (Khurana, Teo, Kundi, Hardell, &

Carlberg, 2009). The susceptibility of fetuses and

pregnant women to EMFs arises from their

interaction with the cells of the developing embryo.

Placental barriers can potentially be negatively

affected by short-wavelength electromagnetic waves.

Cell phones possess a protective layer that inhibits the

passage of substances through blood vessels.

Consequently, pregnant women should refrain from

using them unless essential (Ghazanfarpour et al.,

2021).

3.2 Electromagnetic Wave Effect on

Pregnancy

Pregnancy is commonly categorized into three

trimesters. The initial trimester spans from the first

week to the twelfth week and encompasses the

process of fertilization. Conception occurs when the

sperm successfully fertilizes the egg. Subsequently,

the fertilized egg migrates via the fallopian tube and

adheres to the uterine wall, initiating the development

of the embryo and placenta. The initial trimester

presents the most elevated likelihood of experiencing

a miscarriage, which refers to the spontaneous demise

of the embryo or baby. The second trimester spans

from week 13 to week 28. Sensations of fetal

movement can typically be perceived during the latter

part of the second trimester. By the time they reach

28 weeks, almost 90% of infants can survive outside

of the womb with the aid of excellent medical

treatment. The third trimester spans from 29 weeks

to around 40 weeks and concludes with parturition,

which is the process of giving birth (Stephanie,

Michael, & Karolina, 2019).

Recent research indicates a correlation between

maternal cell phone usage during pregnancy and an

increased risk of miscarriage, congenital

abnormalities, and behavioral issues in offspring.

Spontaneous miscarriage is the prevailing

complication in the initial stages of pregnancy.

Spontaneous abortion, often known as miscarriage,

refers to losing a pregnancy before the 20th week of

gestation (Regan & Rai, 2000). Exposure to

electromagnetic waves was strongly correlated with a

higher incidence of abortion in women (p<0.01). The

likelihood test substantiated the impact of EMFs on

augmenting the probability of abortion (Abad,

Malekafzali, Simbar, Mosaavi, & Khoei, 2016).

Another study stated that EMFs exposure with

frequencies higher than 50 Hz or magnetic field

strengths more than 16 mG is linked to a 1.27 times

higher risk of experiencing an abortion

(Ghazanfarpour et al., 2021). A study found that

pregnant women who utilized their mobile phones

throughout pregnancy had a higher likelihood of

delivering infants with low birth weight compared to

those who did not use mobile phones, also (Özge

Kömürcü Karuserci, Nilgün Çöl, 2019) miscarriages

as well as changes in fetal temperature, HRV (heart

rate variability), and assessments of baby body size,

(El Jarrah, I Rababa, 2022) (Li, Chen, Ferber, Odouli,

& Quesenberry, 2017;Ebadi, Pournorouz, Samaneh,

& Mir, 2020; Karimi, Moghaddam, & Valipour,

2020; Seyed Mohammad Javad Mortazavi,

Mortazavi, & Paknahad, 2016) prematurity or

delivery before reaching 36 weeks of gestation,

compared to women with low exposure (Tsarna et al.,

2019).

The study in San Francisco with 1063 pregnant

women around the San Francisco area showed that

rates of pregnancy loss grew significantly with

increasing levels of maximum magnetic field

exposure in routine day-to-day life (Aghaei,

Thayoob, Mahdaviasl, & Darzi, 2014). Anomalies in

fetuses and children, such as developmental disorders

and malignancies was studied by Kashani et al with a

comprehensive examination (Kashani et al., 2023).

Contrary prior studies indicate that inadvertent

exposure to 3.5 GHz radiofrequency electromagnetic

fields, such as those emitted by 5G signals, had no

significant impact on the whole body-averaged

specific absorption rate (WBASAR) in neonates (Liu

et al., 2017). There is no observed link between

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314

maternal exposure to extremely low frequency

electromagnetic fields (ELF-EMF) and miscarriage,

stillbirth, newborn birth abnormalities, and preterm

delivery. However, the impact on short gestational

age and low birth weight remains questionable (Zhou

& , Chunlan Ma, YuJun Li, 2022). There is little data

to support the claim that being close to electrical

power grids, which emit extremely low frequency

electromagnetic fields, increases the likelihood of

birth abnormalities. Women living in close

proximity to electrical networks can be certain that

the likelihood of birth abnormalities being influenced

is low (Auger et al., 2019).

3.3 Electromagnetic Wave Effect on

Placenta

Pregnant women and babies are equally susceptible

to harm because EMFs affects the cells involved in

the development of the embryo. Exposure to

microwave radiation has the potential to harm the

protective barrier of the placenta. The membrane

acts as a barrier, impeding the movement of

chemicals between the blood (Seyed Mohammad

Javad Mortazavi et al., 2016). Its interaction with

cells of the embryo’s development and can damage

the placenta barrier. The membrane prevents the

transfer of substances between blood (Abad et al.,

2016).

Takei et al stated that when a woman is pregnant,

the placenta absorbs EMFs radiation emitted by

smartphones, resulting in an elevation of fetal

temperatures. The placenta acts as a link between the

fetal membranes and maternal tissues, facilitating the

exchange of nutrients and oxygen. Consequently, an

increase in the temperature of the placenta can

potentially affect the fetus by causing alterations in its

metabolic processes and the flow of blood to the

placenta (Takei et al., 2018).

3.4 Electromagnetic Wave Effect on

Fetus

Prior studies revealed that higher prenatal exposure to

EMFs might result in a decrease in the birth weight,

head size, head, upper arm, and abdomen, as well as

skinfold thickness of the back, triceps, and abdomen,

in females but not in males (Ren et al., 2019) and

lower birth weight and a high rate of infant

emergency transport (Lu et al., 2017)

Figure 2. Risk of bias assessment using Newcastle–Ottawa score. Risk of bias assessment for each study according to

NOS.(Aromataris E, Fernandez R, Godfrey C, Holly C, Kahlil H, 2015) Plots created using risk-of-bias visualization (robvis)

tool (Mcguinness, 2021)

Impact of Non-Ionizing Electromagnetic Waves on Human Pregnancy and Teratogenicity: A Systematic Review

315

The Newcastle–Ottawa scale (NOS) was

employed for the evaluation of the studies' quality.

This scale is utilised to assess the calibre of cohort

studies. This tool has been demonstrated to possess

both validity and reliability through multiple

researchs. Each study can obtain a maximum of ten

stars based on the NOS. The evaluation of the

selection can be assigned a rating of up to five stars,

taking into account parameters such as the size of the

sample, the number of non-respondents, and the

accuracy of determining the exposure. The

comparability can be rated up to two stars, reflecting

the degree to which the study accounts for the most

important factor. The maximum rating for the

outcome, which includes the evaluation and statistical

analysis, is three stars. research rated with nine or 10

stars are categorised as high-quality, whilst research

rated with seven or eight stars are categorised as

medium-quality. Studies with a rating below six stars

are categorised as low-quality (Bae, n.d.).

4 DISCUSSION

The findings indicated that the average specific

absorption rate (SAR) in the maternal body rose as

pregnancy advanced. The Specific Absorption Rates

(SARs) in the fetus varied based on the spatial

arrangement of the smartphone and the fetus, peaking

at 18 weeks of gestation in this study. Furthermore,

we have verified that the rise in temperature

experienced by both the mother and the fetus during

pregnancy is more pronounced at 18 weeks of

gestation compared to 26 weeks of gestation. This is

due to the placenta's effective cooling influence on

both the maternal body and the developing baby. The

significance of the positional link between the

smartphone, placenta, and fetus is substantial. We

have also verified that the Specific Absorption Rates

(SARs) for smartphone radiation were significantly

lower compared to the SARs for radiation from

simplified sources (Takei et al., 2018).

Pregnant women may experience distinct impacts

from exposure to electromagnetic radiation compared

to women who are not pregnant. Research has

demonstrated a correlation between exposure to

electromagnetic fields (EMFs) and a heightened

likelihood of experiencing abortion or miscarriage

(Ebadi et al., 2020; Abad et al., 2016; Ghazanfarpour

et al., 2021; Robert, 1999). The risk of miscarriage is

determined by variables such as the strength of the

electromagnetic fields, proximity to the radiation

source, and the frequency intensity of the waves (Li

et al., 2002). Potential risk factors for miscarriage

include exposure to extremely low frequency

electromagnetic fields (EMFs) and mobile phones.

Furthermore, prolonged exposure to electromagnetic

fields during pregnancy, namely at frequencies

exceeding 50 Hz or magnetic field strengths

surpassing 16 mG, has been linked to a heightened

likelihood of miscarriage. These findings indicate

that pregnant women may have a higher vulnerability

to the impacts of electromagnetic wave exposure,

emphasizing the significance of providing

customized guidance and preventive measures for

pregnant women. The study findings indicated that

fetuses and children whose parents were exposed to

electromagnetic fields (EMFs) had decreased average

antioxidant levels in umbilical cord blood and

increased average oxidant levels in the umbilical

cord. Human placental villi, when subjected to

radiofrequency electromagnetic fields (RF-EMF)

during the initial phases of pregnancy, exhibited

reduced levels of the antioxidant enzyme TXNL-2. A

reduced quantity of placental antioxidants serves as a

crucial protective mechanism against the

physiological impacts of RF-EMFs during pregnancy

(Kashani et al., 2023). The exposure of fibrous tissues

to electromagnetic waves results in a reduction of

antioxidant factors and an increase in oxidative stress

parameters. This, in turn, causes damage to proteins

and nucleic acids in the placenta. Such damage can

have serious consequences, including the impairment

of normal trophoblastic functions and potentially

even cell death (Cervellati et al., 2009).

Electromagnetic wave exposure was correlated with

a higher degree of apoptosis (Ghazanfarpour et al.,

2021). The researchers also noted a reduction in

oxygen consumption and an increase in apoptosis in

the placental cells that were exposed to these specific

wave ranges. Lopucki et al. discovered that exposure

to electromagnetic fields (EMF) led to an elevated

release of calcium ions in placental tissue. This

finding implies that EMF may impact the activity of

calcium channels, as shown in other types of tissue

(Wdowiak, Mazurek, Wdowiak, & Bojar, 2017).

5 CONCLUSION

Based on the analysis of journals carried out, 31

journals were collected with criteria following this

systematic review. In summary, the existing data is

inadequate to establish definitive correlations

between exposure to electromagnetic radiation and

pregnancy outcomes. In order to obtain more robust

results, further investigation including larger cohorts

ICOMESH 2023 - INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON MEDICAL SCIENCE AND HEALTH

316

and a wider range of geographic locations is

necessary.

CONFLICT OF INTEREST

The authors make no disclosures of any conflicts of

interest that might be seen as tainting the objectivity

of the study presented.

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Impact of Non-Ionizing Electromagnetic Waves on Human Pregnancy and Teratogenicity: A Systematic Review

319

APPENDIX

Table 1. Cohort Study of non-ionizing electromagnetic wave in pregnancy

No References research design duration of

osure

frequency main outcome measured

outcome

1 Mobile phone use

during

pregnancy:

Which

association with

fetal growth?

(Boileau et al.,

2020)

observational

cohort study

- 1368 mothers

- Mean phone

time during

pregnancy: 29.8

minutes per day

- Range of

phone time

during

pregnancy: 0.0-

240.0 minutes

per day

- The study

found a higher

frequency of

growth

restriction at

birth with

greater mobile

phone use

during

pregnancy.

- Phone time

was recorded

in minutes per

- The main outcome

was the association

between mobile

phone use during

pregnancy and fetal

growth.

- The study focused

on the impact of

phone time on

growth restriction at

birth, defined by an

AUDIPOG score

10th percentile.

- Growth

restriction at

birth (AUDIPOG

score 10th

percentile)

- APGAR score

at birth, fetal

malformations,

birth weight,

head

circumference

(secondary

objectives)

2 May

electromagnetic

field exposure

during pregnancy

have a negative

effect on

anthropometric

measurements of

the newborn ?

(Özge Kömürcü

Karuserci, Nilgün

Çöl, 2019)

observational

cohort study

- 400 pregnant

woman

- TV exposure:

1-3 hours, 4-6

hours, 7-12

hours, more than

12 hours

- Mobile phone

exposure: 30

minutes, 30-60

minutes, 60

minutes

- Computer

exposure: 1

hour, 1-3 hours,

3 hours

- Wi-fi

exposure: 1

hour, 1-3 hours,

3 hours

TV, mobile

phone usage

and living

near a base

station

- Negative effect on

anthropometric

measurements of the

newborn - Adverse

effects on fetal

development

- Negative

correlation

between maternal

mobile phone

usage and

newborn's birth

weight

- Negative

correlation

between multiple

mobile phone

usage and birth

week, birth

weight, and birth

length of the

newborn

3 Prenatal exposure

to extremely low

frequency

magnetic field

and its impact on

fetal growth (Ren

et al., 2019)

observational

cohort study

- 128

pregnant woman

- Observat

ion in 24 hours

- The study

measured

extremely low

frequency

magnetic

fields.

- The

frequency

band ranged

from 40 to

1000 Hz.

- Prenatal exposure

to higher ELF-MF

associated with

decreased fetal

growth in girls

- No significant

association between

prenatal ELF-MF

exposure and fetal

growth in boys

- Fetal growth

measured by

birth weight and

body

measurements

- Skinfold

thickness and

circumference

measurements of

various body

arts

4 Maternal

exposure to

extremely low

frequency

magnetic fields:

Association with

time to pregnancy

and foetal

growth’

observational

cohort study

373 pregnant

women

- The study

focuses on

extremely low

frequency

magnetic

fields.

- The

association

etween

- The main outcome

is the association

between maternal

exposure to

extremely low

frequency magnetic

fields and time-to-

pregnancy and foetal

growth.

- The measured

outcome was

time-to-

pregnancy and

foetal growth.

- a mean

difference in

grams of -45 with

a 95%

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320

(Eskelinen et al.,

2016)

frequency and

pregnancy

outcomes is

examined.

- The study found a

mean difference in

grams of -45 with a

95% confidence

interval of -547

grams to 456 grams

for all spot

measurements and -

142 grams (95% CI -

505, 221) for

bedroom spot

measurements.

confidence

interval of -547

grams to 456

grams for all spot

measurements

and -142 grams

(95% CI -505,

221) for bedroom

spot

measurements.

5 The study of the

effects of

ionizing and

non‑ionizing

radiations on

birth weight of

newborns to

exposed mothers

(S. M. J.

Mortazavi,

Shirazi, &

Mortazavi, 2013)

observational

cohort study

1200 preganncy

woman

cell phones,

cordless

telephone,

cathode-ray

tube and so

on)

Did not find any

clear relationshop

between pergnancy

and non-ionizing

radiation during

pregnant

There were no

statistical

significant

differences

between the

mean weight of

newborns whose

mothers had been

exposed to some

common sources

of ionizing and

non-ionizing

radiations such as

dental or non-

dental

radiographies,

mobile phone,

cordless phone

and cathode ray

tube (CRT) and

those of

non‑exposed

mothers

6 ‘Association

between

electromagnetic

field exposure

and abortion in

pregnant women

living in Tehran’,

(Abad et al.,

2016)

observational

cohort study

During The

study included

462 pregnant

women from 7

regions of

Tehran city in

Iran pregnancy

27 MHz-

3GHz

Not provide strong

evident that EMF

causes miscarriage

This study may

not provide

strong or

consistent

evidence that

electromagnetic

field exposure is

associated or

cause

miscarriage. This

issue may be due

to small sample

size in this stud

7 Congenital

malformations

and exposure to

high-frequency

electromagnetic

radiation among

Danish

physiotherapists

(

Larsen, 1991

)

observational

cohort study

25 pregnancies

of a staff of

physiotherapists

300 kHz and

300MHz

No statistically

significant

associations

between pregnancy

outcome and high-

frequency

electromagnetic

radiation were found

8 Association of

personal exposure

to powe

observational

cohort study

119 Pregnant

women

1.10 mG

(2.14 mG) and

Personal MF

exposures were not

Impact of Non-Ionizing Electromagnetic Waves on Human Pregnancy and Teratogenicity: A Systematic Review

321

frequency

magnetic fields

women seeking

fertility treatment

in with pregnancy

outcomes among

a longitudinal

cohort study (E.

Mary, Lidia MA,

Lewis CR, 2020

)

15.54 mG

(58.73 mG)

associated with

pregnancy outcomes

Table 2. Systematic Review and Meta Analysis Study of non-ionizing electromagnetic wave in pregnancy

No References research

desi

duration of

osure

frequency main outcome measured

outcome

1 Exposures to

radio-

frequency

electromagneti

c fields and

their impacts

on children’s

health – What

the science

knows? (Lim,

Choi, Joo, &

Ha, 2023)

Systematic

Review

During

Pregnancy

100 kHz -

300 GHz

- Risk of

inattention or

behavioral

problems

increased with

duration of mobile

phone use in older

children and

adolescents.

- Shortened

pregnancy

duration

associated with

increased maternal

mobile

hone use.

- Fetal growth

or birth weight

- Gestational

age at birth,

preterm

delivery,

spontaneous

abortion, and

craniosynostosi

2 Analytical

Study on the

Effects of

Electromagneti

c Waves on

Human Beings

(Kumar, Shah,

Kalra, & Pant,

2019)

Systematic

Review

During

Pregnancy

Radiofreque

ncy (RF)

frequencies:

100 kHz-300

GHz

Intermediate

frequency

(IF)

frequencies:

300 Hz-100

kHz

- Effects of

electromagnetic

waves on human

beings

- Health effects

due to radiation

exposure

especially

pregnancy

pregnant

woman should

not kept their

mobile phones

near (N/A)

3 Impacts of

smartphone

radiation on

pregnancy : A

systematic

review (El

Jarrah, I

Rababa, 2022)

Systematic

Review

During

Pregnancy

100 kHz to

300 GHz

EMF radiation

exposure during

pregnancy is

associated with

miscarriages and

fluctuations in the

fetal temperature

and heart rate

variability among

adults.

Miscarriages

Fluctuations In

Fetal

Temperature

Heart Rate

Variability

Infant

Anthropometri

c Measures

4 Effect of

Magnetic

Fields during

Pregnancy on

Fetal Growth

and Preterm

Systematic

Review

During

Pregnancy

300 MHz to

300 GHz

Duration Of

Pregnancy

Preterm Birth

Birth Weight

Small for

The duration of

pregnancy was

shorter for

mothers using

cell phones for

more than one

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322

Labor: A

Review Article

(Khojastehfard

et al., 2020

)

Gestational Age

Birth Length

hour per day

than those use

shorter than

one hour.

5 ‘Effect of

electromagneti

c waves on

human

reproduction’,

24(1), pp. 13–

18. doi:

10.5604/12321

966.1228394

(Wdowiak et

al., 2017).

Systematic

Review

During

Pregnancy

0.3–300

GHz

APGAR scale APGAR scale,

was worse in

women

exposed to a

greater

Degree to the

waves of the

GSM band

6 Wireless

technologies,

non-ionizing

electromagneti

c fields and

children:

Identifying and

reducing health

risks (Davis et

al., 2023)

Systematic

Review

During

Pregnancy

2.45 GHz psychomotor and

mental

development index

poorer

psychomotor

development

index and a

lower mental

development

index up

7 Wi-Fi is an

important

threat to human

health (Pall,

2018)

Systematic

Review

During

Pregnancy

Wi-Fi

antenna

connected to

the internet

and a series

computers,

laptops

and/or other

wireless

devices

communicati

wirelessly

with the Wi-

Fi antenna

abortion Spontaneous

abortion is

often caused by

chromosomal

mutations, so

the germ line

mutations may

have a causal

role.

8 Thermal and

non-thermal

health effects

of low intensity

non-ionizing

radiation: An

international

perspective

(Belpomme,

Hardell,

Belyaev,

Burgio, &

Carpenter,

2018)

Systematic

Review

During

Pregnancy

- EMFs vary

in frequency

and

wavelength.

- RF-EMFs

range from

30 kHz to

300 GHz.

- ELF-EMFs

range from 3

Hz to 3 kHz.

- Increased risk of

brain cancer from

excessive mobile

phone exposure

- Adverse effects

on male and

female

reproduction

- Neurobehavioral

decrements and

development of

electro-

hypersensitivity

syndrome

- Standards set by

national and

international

odies are not

- Prenatal

exposure to

cell phones

associated

with emotional

and

hyperactivity

problems in

children.

- Maternal

mobile phone

use during

pregnancy

increases risk

hyperactivity

and inattention

Impact of Non-Ionizing Electromagnetic Waves on Human Pregnancy and Teratogenicity: A Systematic Review

323

protective -

Concerns about

children's

susceptibility and

potential long

-term health effects

- In utero exposure

affects fetal

programming and

neurodevelopment

- Impaired learning

and memory from

exposure to non-

thermal intensities

- Induction of

oxidative stress

and inflammation

in the brain

- Majority of

laboratory studies

show detrimental

effects of EMFs

problems in

children.

- Prenatal or

postnatal

mobile phone

exposure may

have greater

neurobehaviora

l effects in

children with

elevated lead

levels.

- EMFs may

have

synergistic

actions with

other

environmental

contaminants

known to affect

cognitive

function.

9 Effect of

extremely low-

frequency

electromagneti

c radiation on

pregnancy

outcome: A

meta-analysis

(Zhou, Ma, Li,

Zhang, & Liu,

2023)

A meta-

analysis

During

Pregnancy

1 to 300 Hz miscarriage,

stillbirth, neonatal

birth defects and

preterm delivery

No correlation

has been found

between

maternal ELF-

EMF exposure

and

miscarriage,

stillbirth,

neonatal birth

defects and

preterm

delivery, while

the effects on

small

gestational age

and low birth

weight are still

uncertain.

research with

high-quality

large samples

and different

regions are still

needed for

further

verification.

10 Relationship

between the

Exposure to

Magnetic

Fields during

Pregnancy and

Risk of

Abortion: A

Review Article

(Ebadi et al.,

2020

)

Systematic

Review

During

Pregnancy

Analog

phones,

digital

phones, and

third-

generation

phones

produce emit

nearly 450-

900 MHz,

850-1900

A significant

likelihood of

miscarriage in

women who

exposed to a

significant level of

the

electromagnetic

wave was observed

The effect of

exposure on

the risk of

abortion

depends on the

distance from

the source of

radiation and

the intensity of

the frequency

of the waves

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324

MHz, and

2000MHz of

frequenc

11 ‘Biological

effects of non-

ionizing

electromagneti

c fields : Two

sides of a

coin’, (Saliev,

Begimbetova,

Masoud, &

Matkarimov,

2019)

Systematic

Review

During

Pregnancy

mobile

phones, the

frequency

range is 900-

1800 MHz

for 3G

standard, for

4G fre-

quency is 2-

8 GHz, and

up to 60 Hz

carrier

frequency

for 5G

Fetal teratogenic no firm

evidence

provided about

mutagenic and

teratogenic

potential of

EMF for

humans yet

Effect of

electromagneti

c field

exposure on

the

reproductive

system (Gye &

Park, 2012)

Systematic

Review

During

Pregnancy

a computer

monitor (3 to

30 Hz)

abortion There was a

positive

relationship

between

occupational

monitor labor

during

pregnancy and

the natural

abortion rate

13 ‘A Review on

the Impact of

the

Electromagneti

c Radiation

(EMR) on the

Human ’ s

Health’,

(Aghaei et al.,

2014

)

Systematic

Review

During

Pregnancy

Communicat

ion wave,

microvawe,

electrical

wave (0.5 -3

GHz)

abortion Pregnancy loss

grew

significanly

with increasing

level of

maximum

magnetic field

exposure in

rooutine day to

lie

14 ‘Insights in the

biology of

extremely low

‑ frequency

magnetic fields

exposure on

human health’

(Karimi et al.,

2020)

Systematic

Review

During

Pregnancy

1 to 300 Hz miscarriage exposure to

ELF-EMF and

miscarriage

depends on the

current

intensity,

strength of the

magnetic field,

and duration of

exposure.

15 ‘The effects of

radiofrequency

exposure on

male fertility

and adverse

reproductive

outcomes: A

protocol for

two systematic

reviews of

human

observational

studies with

systematic

reviews of

human

observational

studies with

meta-analysis

During

Pregnancy

100 kHz–

300 GHz

preterm birth,

small for

gestational age

(associated with

intrauterine growth

restriction),

miscarriage,

stillbirth and

congenital

anomalies

spontaneous

miscarriage

which occurs

in 25% of

pregnancies,

pre-term birth

occurring in

10% of

pregnancies;

stillbirth

occurring in

2% of births;

con

enital

Impact of Non-Ionizing Electromagnetic Waves on Human Pregnancy and Teratogenicity: A Systematic Review

325

meta-analysis’,

(Kenny et al.,

2022)

anomalies

occurring in up

to 5% of

newborns and

low birth

weight

occurring in

14.6% of births

16 Electromagneti

c fields

exposure on

fetal and

childhood

abnormalities:

Systematic

review and

meta-analysis

(Kashani et al.,

2023

)

Systematic

review and

meta-analysis

During

Pregnancy

more than 50

Hz or

0.82mG

still- birth,

congenital

anomalies, and

abortions

Daily exposure

to radio waves

has increased

concerns about

infertility, still-

birth,

congenital

anomalies, and

abortions

17 Human

Adverse

Reproductive

Outcomes and

Electromagneti

c Field

Exposures:

Review of

Epidemiologic

Studies (Shaw

& Croen,

1993

)

Systematic

Review

During

Pregnancy

50-60 Hz spontaneous

abortion

lacking for a

strong

association

between a

woman's use of

a video display

terminal

(VDT) during

pregnancy and

spontaneous

abortion.

18 Effect of

electromagneti

c field on

abortion: A

systematic

review and

meta-analysis

(Ghazanfarpou

r et al., 2021)

A systematic

review and

meta-analysis

During

Pregnancy

above 50 Hz abortion Exposure to

EMFs above

50 Hz or 16

mG is

associated with

1.27×

increased risk

of abortion.

19 Measurement

studies of

personal

exposure to

radiofrequency

electromagneti

c fields: A

systematic

review

(Ramirez-

Vazquez et al.,

2023

)

Systematic

Review

During

Pregnancy

100 kHz–

300 GHz

N/A base-station

exposure was

the largest

contributor to

personal

measurements

of RF-EMF in

both parents

and children in

South Korea.

20 The Effect of

Extremely

Low-

Frequency

Electromagneti

c Radiation on

Pregnancy

Outcome: A

A Meta-

Analysis

During

Pregnancy

1 Hz to 300

miscarriage,

stillbirth, neonatal

birth defects and

preterm delivery

No correlation

has been found

between

maternal ELF-

EMF exposure

and

miscarriage,

stillbirth,

ICOMESH 2023 - INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON MEDICAL SCIENCE AND HEALTH

326

Meta-Analysis

(Zhou & ,

Chunlan Ma ,

YuJun Li,

2022)

neonatal birth

defects and

preterm

delivery, while

the effects on

small

gestational age

and low birth

weight are still

uncertain.

research with

high-quality

large samples

and different

regions are still

needed for

further

verification

21 Associations of

Maternal Cell-

Phone Use

During

Pregnancy

With

Pregnancy

Duration and

Fetal Growth

in 4 Birth

Cohorts

(Tsarna et al.,

2019)

A Meta-

Analysis

During

Pregnancy

1 Hz to 300

shorter pregnancy

duration and

preterm birth

Maternal cell-

phone use

during

pregnancy may

be associated

with shorter

pregnancy

duration and

increased risk

of preterm

birth, but these

results should

be interpreted

with caution,

since they may

reflect stress

during

pregnancy or

other residual

confounding

rather than a

direct effect of

cell-phone

exposure in

55,507

pregnant

women

22 Problems in

evaluating the

health impacts

of radio

frequency

radiation (Ben

Ishai, Davis,

Taylor, &

Birnbaum,

2023)

Systematic

Review

During

Pregnancy

800–1600

MHz could

miscarriage, fetal

temperature,

variations in fetal

heart rate

variability,

changes in infant

anthropometric

measurements

EMF exposure

effects on

human

pregnancy did

find significant

impacts “

heightedned

risks of

miscarriage,

changes to fetal

temperature,

variations in

fetal heart rate

variabilit

, and

Impact of Non-Ionizing Electromagnetic Waves on Human Pregnancy and Teratogenicity: A Systematic Review

327

changes in

infant

anthropometric

measurements.

How- ever, the

same study

cautioned that

there was wide

variability in

assessing

exposure in

cohort studies,

in the type and

duration of

expo- sures

involved.

23 Use of mobile

phone during

pregnancy and

the risk of

spontaneous

abortion

(Mahmoudaba

di, Ziaei,

Firoozabadi, &

Kazemnejad,

2015)

Systematic

Review

During

Pregnancy

1 Hz to 300

spontaneous

abortions

mobile phones

can be related

to the early

spontaneous

abortions

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