Sakta-Tantric Icons and Erotic Images from Assam

Nilkamal Singha

, Oinam Ranjit Singh

and Deepak Kumar

History, Bodoland University, Assam, India

History and Archaeology, Manipur University, India

History, Bhopal School of Social Sciences, India

Keywords: Tantra, Sculpture, Erotic Art, Shaktism, Kamakhya, Mahavidyas.

Abstract: Assam is located on north-eastern part of India with rich cultural past. It came under the cultural influence of

mainland India from time immemorial and ever since the mainland culture has made its inroads to Assam.

These cultural traits include both tangible and intangible. Over the time the people living in Assam has

adopted many beliefs and customs, art and architecture and sculptural art of mainland which include some of

the extreme beliefs namely Shakta-Tantra. The present article aims to study and examine the Sakta-Tantra

icons and erotic images of Assam protected and preserved by Directorate of Archaeology (DoA) and Assam

State Museum (ASM).

1 INTRODUCTION

The Shakta or Shaktism is a goddess centric cult and

one of the major Hindu sects considering

metaphorically a women and Shakti (Mahadevi) is

regarded as supreme godhead. It consists of numerous

goddesses and their different forms all considered

aspects of same supreme goddess (Klostermaier,

2010: 233-45). Shakta is different sub-tradition from

worship of Durga, Parvati and Kali. The major

information of the sect derived from shruti and smriti

texts and religious texts like Devi Mahatmya, Devi-

Bhagavatam, Puranas specially Kalika Puran in

context of Assam and Devi Upanishad (Jones &

Ryan, 2014: 399). The Sakta traditions involve both

devotional and tantric strands. The Shakti traditions

have maintained strong tantric leanings and preserved

ritual and contemplative practices originating in

Hindu tantric circles (June, 2004: 6-13). It is closely

related to Saiva tradition and the textual basis of many

Shakta traditions are rooted in the goddess oriented

Vidyapitha and Kaula traditions. However though

aligned Shakta tradition were not tied to Saiva

tradition but enjoys individuality of its own. The

worship of goddess was widespread throughout the

south Asia. There was tremendous growth in Devi

worship during tenth-eleventh century indicated by

Puranic literatures (Pintchman, 2014). Tantra is a sub-

tradition of Shaktism referring to practices,

techniques, ritual grammar, icons involving mantra,

yantra, nyasa, mudra and other elements of

traditional Kundalini yoga practiced typically` in the

guidance of a qualified guru after due initiation

(diksha) and oral instruction of various texts. There is

a discourse among Shakta theologians whether tantric

practices are orthodox or heterodox. The origins of

Shakta tantrism are uncertain, ambiguous and

possibly olden, individualistic and independent of

Vedic traditions. The interplay among the Vedic and

tantric tradition can be traced to sixth century CE

(Brooks, 1990). According to Geoffrey Samuel

(2008) surge of tantric traditions and practices can be

ascribed to late medieval times and were meant to

confront and cope with Islamic invasion and political

instability around fourteenth century. The popular

Shakta tantras are Saradatilaka tantra (eleventh cent.),

Kali Tantra (fifteenth cent.) Yogini Tantra

(seventeenth cent.), Sarvlassa Tantra, Saktananda

Taragini, Shyama Rahasya (sixteenth cent.),

Tantrasara, Agama Tattvavilasa (seventeenth cent.).

The Sanskrit tantric texts from Orissa in Oriya script

belonging to ninth-tenth century are Kaula

Chudamani and Varahi tantric. The Sakta tantric

tendency greatly influenced other religious cults. In

Orissa it conceived Jagannath as Shiva and Vimala as

Mahadevi such parallels are also found among many

caste and tribes of India including Assam. In Assam

Shiva was tribalised in the form of Shiju in Bodos,

Langa Deo among Rabhas etc.

646

Singha, N., Singh, O. and Kumar, D.

Sakta-Tantric Icons and Erotic Images from Assam.

DOI: 10.5220/0012500300003792

Paper published under CC license (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0)

In Proceedings of the 1st Pamir Transboundary Conference for Sustainable Societies (PAMIR 2023), pages 646-654

ISBN: 978-989-758-687-3

2 EROTIC ART

Erotic art is art with a sexual content, which may be

more or less overt. The philosophy and intrinsic

meaning of these structures are varied but when

studied in context the sculpture appears along with

divinities and daily scenes inferring that the sexual act

being only one of the many acts of life. The exact

philosophy of erotic art is not known; possibly it

differs with the socio-cultural orientation of

communities in different time and space. Sexuality is

a part of human experience since our inception as

specie. There have been times and cultures when

explicit reference and depiction were more accepted

by societal norms and sometimes not. Sculptures with

genitals are rampant across cultures with many using

exaggerated figures of these genitals as representation

of gods of fertility. In India it sometimes depicts

sanyama or abstinence. In Indian philosophy

restraining and non-indulgence always held high.

Misandry scholarship suggest phallic symbolises

reasserting male dominance, power and political

authority whilst the Indian philosophy it always mean

an unending desire and something to be restrained for

greater goal i.e. moksha (Rao, 2018).

The erotic figures consist of human characters, god

and goddesses, copulation and bestiality scenes. The

erotic images are modelled in stone and clay, such

images were found on the walls of temples, also some

solitary images. The early yaksa, yaksi, maithunas,

nayika images also reminds of the category. However

they are largely categorised as artistic. The various

aspects and philosophy regarding the representation

of erotics in plastic art are discussed elaborately by

Desai. According to her it represents sacred union of

women with god, exposing of nudity and worship of

generative organs, magical power of obscene

language and gesture, magical power of depicted sex,

role of women in magico-sexual rites etc. sometimes

depiction in temples is reminder of devadasi system.

The depictions include coital couples and orgies

reported from various parts of the country mainly

central and eastern India. The various poses of sexual

congress include frontal congress, oral congress of

fellatio type, congress from rear (vyanata), head

down pose, sitting pose, standing pose and sleeping

congress, masturbating figures, amorous couples,

homosexuals, bestiality, copulating animals (Desai,

1975). Terracotta images on the theme are not

reported from Assam so far. Penetration of erotic

tantric goddess in the temporal representation can be

ascribed to Buddhist Tantric traditions. The cult of

Shakti has direct bearing on the depiction of mithunas

of religious art. The esoteric cult of Sri has been

mentioned in Buddhist literature. The Buddhist

structures mark the commencement of erotic art in

India and it culminated around twelfth-thirteenth

centuries. However Buddhist erotic art are not

reported from Kamarupa. Erotic depictions are

permitted in religious art because it was considered

auspicious (mangala) because of its association with

procreativity (Desai, 1975). During the early

medieval period erotic art was incorporated into

mainstream representation however they are not

assigned prime or centre spaces, but depicted towards

the margins of a structure of representations. From

seventh-eighth century the epicentre of erotic arts

shifted to eastern India towards Orissa and Assam. It

seems Orissan images had direct implication on the

erotic art of Assam. Erotic representations are

reported from many temples from Orissa including

Jagannath and Sun temple of Konark which includes

maithuna poses, oral congress, standing frontal

congress etc. Oral congress is shown in two varieties

fellatio and Kakila. Erotic arts are also reported from

other Orissan sites of Bhubaneswar and Konark

mostly on the outer walls of temple. The

representation includes mithunas, human and of

nagas, mithuna couples in various poses, erotic

groups. Sanghata of one man and two women and one

woman and two men. Bestiality, Salabhanjika,

alasakanyas and nudity exposing females. The coital

poses found representation has preponderance of

standing poses, purusayita or viparitarata (woman

acting as man), oral poses, nudity(exposing females),

sexo-yogic poses, ascetics in erotic scenes, royal and

aristocratic person in erotic arts, hunting parties in

association with erotic scenes, sexual figures flanking

deities, erotic representation inside the temples. The

main representations in Kamarupa belonging to the

subjects are ten Mahavidyas, various forms of

goddess Parvati including Lajja Gauri, Uma-

Maheshwar and erotic representations of various

forms and kinds.

3 MATRIKAS AND YOGINIS

Matrikas (divine mothers) are group of seven

(saptamatrika) or eight (astamatrika) mother

goddesses depicted together. Scholars identify

saptamatrikas to be personification of seven stars and

became popular by 7

century a standard feature of

Devi temples since ninth century (Wangu, 2003:

187). Saptamatrikas are popular in South India while

astamatrikas are popular in eastern India and Nepal

(Van Den Hoek, 1993). Matrikas assumed prominent

position Sakta-tantric belief. The early references of

Sakta-Tantric Icons and Erotic Images from Assam

647

matrikas are associated with conception, birth,

diseases and protection of children. They were also

associated with various perils, propitiated in order to

avoid sickness and mortality in children (Wangu,

2003: 58-59). They were also considered inauspicious

sometimes (Kinsley, 1988). According to Kinsley

matrikas may be local village goddesses, who are

being assimilated in the league of divinities.

Saptamatrikas are ascribed to Dravidian origin

(Bhattacharya, 1974). There are many temples across

India dedicated to matrikas or have depiction of

matrikas. Matrikas are included among yoginis a

group of sixty four or eighty one goddesses. The

nature and character of yoginis are not clear and are

described variously.

Figure 1: Matrikas on the outer wall of Garbha of

Kamakhya temple

In tantric Hindu tradition they are important deities

whereas other traditions consider them to be cruel

minor deities (Dehejia, 1986: 5). Every matrikas are

considered to be yogini associated with seven other

yoginis. The prominent yoginis are identified as

matrikas (Bhattacharya, 1974: 128). Yogini is an

adept female practitioner of tantra and yoga. Worship

of yoginis is considered heterodoxical, Dehejia is of

view that its emergence lies in the worship of village

goddess, the grama devata. In tantra these divinities

were grouped into sixty four and considered powerful

(Dehejia, 1986: 1-10). However in common parlance

female sanyasins are identified as yogini.

Figure 2: 1 Chamunda (Barpathar, ASM) 2

Chamunda (

Kamakhya

) 3 Narasimhi (Deoparbat,

DoA) 4 Bhubaneswari (Kamakhya, ASM) 5&6

Manasa (ASM) 7 Narasimhi (Madan Kamdev, DoA)

8 Tripura Bhairavi (Jogijan, ASM).

Figure 3: 1 Unknown Devi (Kamakhya) 2 Series of

yogini (Golaghat) 3 Twin serpent deity (Kamakhya)

4 diety with serpent attendants (Sankhyadevi, DoA) 5

Deity on prone human figure 6 Gajalaksmi (DoA) 7

Erotic image (Deoparbat, DoA) 8 Devi Murti

(Kamakhya) 9 & 10 Devi (Madan Kamdev, DoA).

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Figure 4: 1 Dakini (Hojai, DoA) 2 Kali (Deoparvat,

DoA) 3&6 Yogini (Kamakhya) 4 Yogini (Deoparbat,

DoA) 5 Salbhanjika (Madan Kamdev, DoA) 7

Gajalaksmi (ASM) 8 Salbhanjika (Golaghat)

3.1 Lajja Gauri

Reproductive capacity of women celebrated

universally among the populace of India. There are

temples specially visited by childless couples

(Pattnaik, 2000: 9). Lajja Gauri is a lotus-headed

Hindu goddess elsewhere associated with affluence,

fertility and virility, sometimes euphemistically

described as Lajja ("modesty"). She is sometimes

shown in a childbirth position (malasana), but

without outward signs of pregnancy.

Her fertility

aspect is emphasized by symbolic representation of

the genitals, Yoni (womb) with legs spread in some

cases, the right foot is placed on a platform for full

opening. She is invoked for abundant crops

(vegetative fertility) and good progeny. Lajja Gauri as

the name suggests it is a form of goddess Parvati. The

origin of the imagery is unknown. The image is

reported from Madhya Pradesh, Elephanta

(Maharashtra), Bagalkot (Karnataka), Orissa,

Sagameswara temple (Andhra Pradesh). The proto

type of Lajja Gauris are reported from chalcolithic

Diamabad (on pot), Taxila, Purana Qila, Bhita, Kara,

Kausambi, Jhusi, Rajghat, Mathura, Samkisa,

Vaisali, Patna (Desai, 1975). Three types of lajja

gauri are identified by Desai namely opulent goddess,

personified yoni and panchachuda (celestial

courtesan). No temple dedicated exclusively to Lajja

Gauri exists. In tribal representations often

outstretched leg posture is noticed. Literary texts like

Sankhayana Grihasutra depict her profile as goddess

of sexuality and fertility. The Saivite affiliation is

suggested from the allusions of bull Nandi and linga

in different Lajja Gauri representations. Sometimes

lotus head and stupa also suggest Laksmi and

Vajrayana connotations. From Assam it is reported

from Kamakhya temple, Siddheswar temple

(Sualkuchi), Madan Kamdev (Baihata Chariali),

Jaljali. According to Ramos (2017) at Kamakhya

Lajja Gauri attains political status from being goddess

of fertility and fortune.

3.2 Kamakhya Temple and Yoni Cult

The temple of Kamakhya is located in Nilachala hill

in Guwahati. The temple and its surrounding and

practices carried out here are described elaborately in

Kalika Puran and Yogini Tantra. Garo and Khasi

folktales assert that Kamakhya being their goddess

(Bareh, 1967: 37-38). Historically it was first referred

in 9

century epigraph of Vanamalavarmadeva. A lot

about the temple is studied and written. It remained

the seat of Shaktism and tantric practices it will not

be exaggerating to say it is the centre of Shakta-

Tantric traditions. According to Eliade (1971)

‘Kamarupa’ is the tantric country par excellence and

one of the oldest ‘seats of power’ in south Asia, the

ground of the goddess’ yoni or sexual organ and the

site of her menstruation. Assam is a symbolic ‘womb’

of tantra and continues to play a key role in lived

practice and the popular imagining of tantra in south

Asia to this day. The proposition is shared and

supported by Eliot (1921) and Sircar (1973) also.

Tantric practices and sacrifices carried at the site were

elaborately discussed in the Yogini Tantra. The

original temple seems build in tenth-eleventh century

at the same time when the temples of Madan Kamdev,

Singri and others were built. The cross-cultural

negotiation of obscure past of Assam was the origin

of yoni cult at Kamakhya. The linkage with Sati story

seems outcome of such negotiation on apparatus of

assimilation of already prevalent cult of yoni and

Nilachala Mountain. Yoni puja was a fundamental

requisite of Kaula ritual system leading to placement

of yoni stone inside its Garbhagriha (Deka, 2004).

Figure 5: the yoni and

Lajja

Gauri, Kamakhya temple

Sakta-Tantric Icons and Erotic Images from Assam

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3.3 Madan Kamdev Temple at Biahata

The temple complex of Madan Kamdev consists of

fourteen plinths known so far. The leading temple of

the complex and also the best preserved one is

dedicated to Uma Maheswara. The sculptural theme

of Madan Kamdev is an amalgamation of devotion,

social and erotic. The lower panel is the continuous

series of Kirtimukha and the upper one bears the

depiction of scenes from daily life and erotic art. The

number and typology of the various sculptures

recovered from the site it is likely that the whole

surface (outer face) of Garbha was treated with

sculptures like the temples at Khajuraho however

some of the sculptures were found and preserved and

large number seems to have lost. The sculptures

however are not in good shape with faces mutilated

and eroded it is hard to identify the icons and

attributes. The sculptures can be classified into

Religious and devotional, Tantric and erotic,

Decorative or architectural.

The sculptures reported from the site include

sculptures of tantric and erotic affinities. These

images include women sitting in squatting position

(malasana), mithuna couple in alingana posture on

kalpavriksha, Couples in various sexual (maithuna)

postures on the pabhaga of the temple. The other

images include a skeletal yogi wearing a thin dhoti,

women looking mirror (darpansundari), humans

indulging in bestiality and copulation, women

dancing and playing musical instruments

predominantly mridanga and veena, women doing

household chores, grinding, bearded devotee doing

penance. There is a sculpture which seems that a

couple seem teaching a women the process of

intercourse and being shy she is covering her eyes

with her hands also women touching her genitals and

a man touching her genitals. The decorative pieces

include Bharwahaks, woman looking at mirror

(darpansundari), Kalpavrikshas, Various vyalas,

Female figures, Dvara shakhas.

Figure 6: erotic image, Madan Kamdev (image 1-16)

3.4 Pingaleswar

Pingaleswar is an archaeological site located in

Pingaleswar village in Karara in Kamrup district

located on a debottar (dedicated to gods) land. The

temple is believed to be built by Indrapala in

eleventh-twelfth century. Ahom king Siva Singha in

1731 and Gaurinath Singha in 1781 through copper

plate made grants of land and essentials needed to the

temple (Thakuria, 2018). The temple is presently in

complete ruins and some pieces of architectural

components are lying at the site suggesting robbery

of stone temple components. The limited architectural

components recovered includes door jambs and sill,

pillar fragments, carved panel with sculpture, figures

playing musical instruments, series of elephants,

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vyalas on pillar, bharwahak gandharbha, dancing

figures, lotus design, erotic images, frieze and bracket

figures, several angasikharas, sculptures and relics

dating to around 11

century. The components lying

at the site presently is less than one percent even we

consider it to be single temple similar in line with

Madan Kamdev and Singri. The significant

depictions at the site include women in combat

posture. Well ornamented erotic figure of women are

also recovered from the site. Though not many

sculptures are survived and available for assessment

the most interesting one being the image of dhyani

Buddha flanked by two bodhi trees found at the

Pingaleswar temple of tenth century. An erotic image

likely copulation with an animal is depicted with

Buddha sitting in dhyana mudra depicting his

unruffled nature (fig. 7.9). The themes suggest onset

of tantric elements in Buddhist and Shakta arts.

Figure 7: erotic

images, Pingaleswar (image 1-10)

3.5 Jaljali

Jaljali is an archaeological site located on the northern

side of river Brahmaputra. The site suddenly

appeared while digging a tank. It was a temple

structure crumbled possibly due to natural reasons.

The remains yielded during salvaging include the

architectural components and some sculptures on the

components of the structure. Various images of

Vishnu reported from the site along with limited

pottery. A dancing Chamunda also reported from the

site.

Figure 8: 1 Erotic panel, 2 Dancing Chamunda, 3

Lady in

Malasana

3.6 Siddheswar Temple (Sualkuchi)

Siddheswar Siva temple is located on the northern

bank of Brahmaputra near Sualkuchi in Kamrup

district built by Ahom king Siva Singha in 1718

(Thakuria, 2018). The temple is located close to the

Puranic site of Hajo which is discussed elaborately in

Kalika Puran and Yogini tantra. Like other Ahom

temples the walls of this temple were adorned with

the images of Vishnu, Mahisamardini, Narasimha,

few female images etc. The most striking image of the

site is the image of Lajja Gauri. The image is depicted

sitting on stupa like component in a malasana

position signifying subordination of Buddhism. There

are also other sites where limited depiction often

solitarily, specially animals in copulating positions

has been reported from Deoparbat (Numaligarh),

Mikirati (Dabaka), Rajbari (Hojai). Stone blocks

bearing these depictions presently lying at the site

therefore it is hard to ascertain whether these images

were from the main structure or from the surrounding

structures.

Sakta-Tantric Icons and Erotic Images from Assam

651

Figure 9: Lajja

Gauri

, Siddeswar, Sualkuchi

Figure 10: Rajbari (

Hojai

) 2 &3 Mikirati (Dabaka)

Jagadhatri Dol or the Barpatra Dol is Ahom temple

dedicated to goddess Jagadhatri located at Kalugaon,

Sibsagar. It is a pancharatha temple with do-sala type

mandapa. The outer wall of the garbha of the temple

is adorned with images of Shakta divinities including

mahavidyas and yoginis. Jagadhatri is an aspect of

Parvati. Her worship and rituals are of tantric

affiliation. She is seen as remover of ego and worldly

desires.

There are some other images also reported from

Assam (Figure 13) which cannot be termed erotic but

has element of sexuality which includes mainly

divinities like Uma-Maheswara in lingodbhav mudra

(Devaka, ASM), Shiva from Deopani, a man in

masturbating position (Madan Kamdev, DoA), two

erotic amorous couple on temple component

(Guwahati, ASM) and Harihara image lingodbhav

mudra (Deopani, ASM).

Figure 11: 1 Kamala, 2 Vaisnavi, 3 Shiva, 4

Brahmani, 5 Kaumari, 6 Surya, 7 Matangi, 8 Indrani

Figure 12: Jagadhatri temple (1&2 Kaumari, 3 unknown, 4

Vishnu, 5&7 Mahadevi, 6 Chamunda, 8 Kamala, 9 Indra)

Figure 13.

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4 CONCLUSION

The discourse of tantra is wide and varied. The

meaning and pantheon of tantra differs region to

region. However sexuality and violence had a special

place in tantric art and imagery. Being known as

cradle of tantra in Assam many prominent Shakta

shrines are located. Assam being a land of

superstition and tragedy it does not took long for the

cult to take its root by making cross-cultural

negotiation by means of assimilation and

sanskritisation which it later tried to repair. The

proliferation and assimilation of numerous local

deities into the pantheon seems to be resultant of this

negotiation. The finding of sculptures related to

Shakta-Tantric tradition is indicative that cult was

popular in Kamarupa and people have accepted the

tradition though in nature it was esoteric and

heterodoxical. Erotic sculptures were known from

central and eastern India and are mostly attached with

Shiva and Shakti shrines. Emergence of class of

goddesses signifying disease, suffering, war, infant

mortality, pedicide has significant meaning of social

condition of contemporary society. Most of the forms

of Shakti have violent and tragic aspects. It seems that

many deities emerged and assimilated at the face of

some tragedy and subversion of male-female tensions

of contemporary society. The rise of divine feminine

power and dramatic rise in goddess in medieval India

seen as challenge to traditional models of

womanhood as passive and docile in their intertwing

of violent and erotic power. Tantric sexual rites

(Tantra Yoga) also imagined as an internal union

based on kundalini and chakras. Some tantras

describe sexual rites for achieving enlightenment.

These can be understood both literally and

symbolically. Couple assume the role of deities in

sexual union symbolically. A practitioner visualises

this union within their own body. The erotic imagery

not only plays an important role in tantra but also in

mainstream Hinduism. According to Hindu belief, the

creation of the universe is resultant of divine sexual

union and the goals of a fulfilling and righteous life

are not only duty (dharma), prosperity (artha),

liberation (moksha) but also desire (kama).

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