The Use of Anhydrous Ammonia as a Mineral Fertilizer and Its

Reaction and Behavior in Soil

Musa Shavanov

and Ilyas Shigapov

Chechen State University, Grozny, Russia

Technological Institute, Branch of Ulyanovsk State Agricultural University, Dimitrovgrad, Russia

Keywords: Nitrogen fertiliser, anhydrous ammonia, agriculture.

Abstract: Anhydrous ammonia (NH3) is the most concentrated nitrogen fertilizer containing 80-82% nitrogen and is

widely used in many countries of the world as mineral fertilizer for agricultural crops. It is the third most

abundantly produced toxic chemical in the world, which is extensively used as a fertilizer in agriculture. At

present, the use of anhydrous ammonia in Russia is not so widely practiсed, but demand is gradually

increasing among farmers. There are several reasons why NH3 is used so widely in the world: firstly, because

of its relatively easy application and ready availability; secondly, it is a starting material for the production of

ammonia and thirdly, it is the least expensive source of nitrogen fertilizer. However, there are also

disadvantages of applying anhydrous ammonia as fertilizer that limit its complete dominance in the market.

It is a gas that is stored as a liquid under high pressure, requiring special equipment for its application and

adequately educated workers. If handled wrong, it can cause rapid dehydration and severe burns as it combines

with the moisture of the body. This article is a compilation of scientific data that has been evaluated from

several perspectives of NH3 after it is applied to soil.

1 INTRODUCTION

The Anhydrous ammonia is one of the most common

sources of nitrogen fertilizer, containing about 80-

82% nitrogen. Usually, it has two states of

aggregation: liquid and gas. The latter prevails under

normal environmental conditions. For storage in large

quantities, it is either liquefies under pressure (about

10 bar at 250C) or cooled (boiling point -330C),

resulting in the formation of liquid ammonia. In this

form, it is relatively easier to handle, of course, with

special equipment designed to work with ammonia.

Although anhydrous ammonia is extremely important

for industry (it is widely used in medicine and the

production of explosives), most of its production is

used in agriculture. Ammonia is directly used as a

fertilizer for crops, and it is also the starting material

for the production of fertilizers such as ammonium

nitrate, ammonium sulfate and others. When it enters

the soil, it turns into a gas and forms ammonium

hydroxide (NH4OH), the ions of which are absorbed

by the soil (Pasman, 2015; Bityutsky, 2014).

It should be noted that ammonia is toxic. It is

lighter than air, flammable and forms explosive

mixtures with chlorine and sulfur dioxide gases, so

untrained people should not be allowed to work with

this substance. NH3 contains low water, therefore it

aggressively absorbs moisture, whether from the soil,

eyes, throat, lungs, or skin. Any contact with

anhydrous ammonia with our body can cause tissue

dehydration, caustic burns, and frostbite. The danger

of ammonia spills is often underestimated, but they

have resulted in a significant number of deaths. For

example, despite all safety measures, in 1973 in

Potchefstroom (South Africa) at a fertilizer plant, a

tank filled with anhydrous ammonia cracked and a

hole was formed from which 38 metric tons of

anhydrous ammonia were released into the

atmosphere as a gas and partly in the form of a boiling

liquid. A massive cloud formed and dissipated into

the air. As a result, 18 people died, 4 of whom lived

in the village within a radius of 200 meters, and 65

workers required medical care (Pasman, 2015). In

April 2013, a fire and explosion of ammonium nitrate

at a West Fertilizer Company plant in Texas killed 15

people and injured 260. The 2014 annual report from

the American Association of Poison Control Centers

(AAPCC) reported 2,083 single cases of exposure to

ammonia (Waheed, 2017).

Shavanov, M. and Shigapov, I.

The Use of Anhydrous Ammonia as a Mineral Fer tilizer and Its Reaction and Behavior in Soil.

DOI: 10.5220/0011555000003524

In Proceedings of the 1st International Conference on Methods, Models, Technologies for Sustainable Development (MMTGE 2022) - Agroclimatic Projects and Carbon Neutrality, pages

79-83

ISBN: 978-989-758-608-8

 2023 by SCITEPRESS – Science and Technology Publications, Lda. Under CC license (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0)

2 CHEMICAL AND BIOLOGICAL

REACTION OF ANHYDROUS

AMMONIA IN SOIL

Anhydrous ammonia should be applied to an

appropriate depth to avoid losses due to volatilization

of ammonia. It is retained in the soil by various

chemical and physical reactions, the most common of

which are reactions with free hydrogen ions (pH

function) and with water. Anhydrous ammonia

dissolves well in water and, when applied to the soil,

reacts with soil moisture. The following reaction

occurs with the formation of ammonium ions:

+ H

O NH

+ OH

NH3 in the form of gas is highly reactive and

ionizes to ammonium ions (NH4+) in the presence of

water. Ammonium ions are positively charged and

are attracted to negatively charged surfaces such as

clay particles and organic matter that leads to the

reduction of ammonium loss from the soil. The

leaching of nitrogen from the soil occurs after

ammonium is converted to nitrate (NO3-) by the

nitrification process, which allows it to move with

soil moisture. Anhydrous ammonia is considered

physiologically alkaline, the application of which

causes temporary alkalization of the soil. In the first

few days after the introduction of anhydrous

ammonia, the pH level in the soil rises (may

temporarily rise above nine at the point of maximum

concentration), but later the acidity of the soil solution

stabilizes and increases. This acidification is caused

by the conversion of NH4+ to NO3- by the action of

nitrifying bacteria and the displacement of exchange-

absorbed cations by the released hydrogen ion. The

following reactions of biological nitrification of

ammonium in the soil:

2NH

+ 3O

2NO

+ 2H

O + 4H

2NO

+ O

2NO

Eventually, such a reaction leads to a decline of

the soil pH to the initial level or below. The

application of anhydrous ammonia results in the

formation of inorganic nitrogen under the soil

surface, because most of it dissipates upward rather

than downward after application. Anhydrous

ammonia spreads in a diameter of approximately 5 to

13 cm depending on soil texture, cation exchange

capacity and soil moisture. The loss of gaseous

ammonia depends on the depth of its application and

the soil moisture. The lack and excess of moisture

contribute to the volatilization of ammonia into the

atmosphere. In such cases, to minimize nitrogen

losses, anhydrous ammonia is applied to a depth of at

least 15 cm with additional equipment that covers the

slot made by the knife of the equipment. The level of

soil moisture directly affects the depth of anhydrous

ammonia application. So, for example, soil with a

moisture content of about 16% leads to minimal loss

of ammonia, regardless of the depth of application,

while on wetter or drier soils, a deeper application of

gaseous ammonia is practiced. Studies have shown

that soil with a moisture level of 2% leads to an

immediate (less than 2 hours) loss of gas, while soil

with a moisture content of about 23% has a gradual

loss of soil nitrogen during the first 1-2 days (Harber,

2016; Sawyer, 2019; Vitosh, M. L.).

3 WORLD PRODUCTION OF

ANHYDROUS AMMONIA

Scalar Food crops are necessary nowadays to quell

the famine of the increasing population. The demand

for food crops has been increasing substantially with

the increasing human population pressure. Thus,

there is an increase in the production of food crops

globally, which naturally depletes soil nutrients.

Farmers rely on fertilizers to keep their soils

productive and produce quality crops (Zhichkin,

2021; Zhichkin, 2021a). Ammonia is an important

source for the production of mineral fertilizers, as

well as the most concentrated nitrogen fertilizer,

which is applied to the soil with special equipment.

About 80-90% percent of the world's ammonia

production is used in agriculture for fertilizer

production and also as a direct application. The

concentration of mineral nitrogen in the places where

anhydrous ammonia is applied can reach 250 mg/kg

on loam granulometric composition soils

(Miroshnichenko, 2015). The global NH3 market has

shown stable growth in recent years, with the Asia-

Pacific region (China and India), as well as Russia

and America, being the largest production countries

(Table 1). Over the next 4 years, a 4% increase in

world production of ammonia is expected. Such an

increase is mainly expected in Africa, Eastern Europe

and South Asia, while in East Asia, on the contrary,

the amount of ammonia produced will decrease due

to factories closures. One of the factors that keep the

constant demand for nitrogen fertilizers is the huge

cultivated areas of corn, which accounts for about

10% of all cultivated areas in the world. For example,

according to the US Department of Agriculture, 37.1

million hectares of corn were planted in America

MMTGE 2022 - I International Conference "Methods, models, technologies for sustainable development: agroclimatic projects and carbon

neutrality", Kadyrov Chechen State University Chechen Republic, Grozny, st. Sher

alone in 2019, which is 3% more compared to 2018

(USGS 2020).

Table 1: World production of ammonia (million tones)

(USGS 2020).

2018 2019

USA 13,1 14

Algeria 1,6 2,4

Australia 1,3 1,3

Belarus 1,05 1,1

Brazil 1 1

Canada 3,83 3,8

China 41 40

Egypt 3,7 4,1

Germany 2,6 2,6

India 11,4 12

Indonesia 5 5

Iran 3,4 3,4

Holland 2,4 2,4

Oman 1,7 1,7

Pakistan 3,1 3,1

Poland 2,17 2,2

Qatar 3,1 3,1

Russia 14,9 15

Saudi Arabia 4 4,3

Trinidad and

Tobago 4 4

Ukraine 1,62 1,6

Uzbekistan 1,2 1,2

Vietnam 1,1 1,1

Other countries 15,8 15

Total 144 150

4 EFFECT OF ANHYDROUS

AMMONIA ON SOIL

MICROBIAL POPULATION

In the second half of the XX century, some authors

expressed concerns about the deterioration of a

number of soil indicators such as humus content, soil

structure and microbial cenosis when anhydrous

ammonia is applied (Papendick, 1966; Parr, 1969).

According to other authors, the quality of crop yield

did not differ when this fertilizer was applied, but, on

the contrary, even improved. However, it must

always be taken into account that the use of mineral

fertilizers in excessive quantities can reduce the

quality of agricultural products, as well as negatively

affect the environment. Цюпка (1989) for 4 years

studied the effect of the regular use of liquid ammonia

and ammonium nitrate on the fertility of the

chernozem soil and the production of agricultural

crops in the Belgorod region. In areas with liquid

ammonia, the content of ammonia nitrogen increased

by 1.4 times, and nitrate nitrogen sometimes up to 4.3

times compared with the application of ammonium

nitrate, which led to a slight decrease in the quality of

crop yield and soil fertility. Also, the reproduction of

some groups of microorganisms was observed while

other microorganisms decreased in number.

Microorganisms involved in the transformation of

ammonia nitrogen and in the decomposition of

organic matter are bred more intensively. These are

nitrifying and denitrifying bacteria, actinomycetes,

spore-forming bacteria, cellulose decomposers and

oligotrophs (Tsyupka, 1989).

Conducted studies in the late 90s and early 2000s

showed that the use of anhydrous ammonia can

favorably affect soil microorganisms and nitrifying

bacteria, and also result in nitrogen retention in the

soil, reduced nitrate leaching and increased yields of

various crops (Biederbeck, 1996; Motavalli, 2008).

This can be proved by the applied horticultural

studies by Harber A. (2016), in which the positive

effect of anhydrous ammonia on soil microorganisms

is observed, as well as the reduction of leaching into

groundwater through interaction with clay particles

and soil moisture. Мирошниченко (2015), in turn,

argue that the use of anhydrous ammonia did not

cause significant changes in the microstructure and

microflora of the soil. This study mentions that during

the first days after fertilization, microorganisms that

assimilate mineral and organic forms of nitrogen are

depressed, as a result of which their number is halved.

However, after three weeks the activity of

microorganisms recommences.

Today, ammonia is widely used in leading

countries of the world, some of which prefer

anhydrous ammonia as a fertilizer. For example, the

USA is the largest producer and consumer. In 2008

anhydrous ammonia accounted for 35% of all

nitrogen fertilizers applied in the USA (Fujinuma,

2011) and during 2019, 16 companies were producing

ammonia at 35 plants in 16 US states. About 60% of

the total ammonia production is concentrated in the

states of Louisiana, Oklahoma and Texas due to their

large gas reserves, which is the main raw material for

the synthesis of ammonia. About 88% of domestic

ammonia consumption is used as fertilizer, including

direct-applied anhydrous ammonia, and for the

production of urea, ammonium nitrate, ammonium

phosphate and other nitrogen compounds (Apodaca,

2020).

Since the end of the 20th - the beginning of the

21st century, in some post-Soviet countries (Ukraine,

The Use of Anhydrous Ammonia as a Mineral Fertilizer and Its Reaction and Behavior in Soil

Russia, Belarus) this form of nitrogen fertilizer has

not been widely used. For example, Ukrainian

agricultural producers use only 12% of the total

produced 200-250 thousand tons of anhydrous

ammonia. In the USSR anhydrous ammonia was used

as the main nitrogen fertilizer, but in the 21st century,

its use in the post-Soviet countries has become

problematic. On the one hand, it can be explained by

the high toxicity of anhydrous ammonia, which, if not

handled correctly, can lead to a fatal outcome. On the

other hand, it is due to the need for trained personnel

to work with NH3 and special equipment for both

transport and storage, and for its application to the

soil (Miroshnichenko, 2015). Today, the application

of anhydrous ammonia in agriculture is steadily

expanding. In Russia, NH3 is still used in small

quantities, but the increasing application in Belarus

and Ukraine leads to high interest among Russian

farmers (Kuguchina, 2020).

5 SUITABLE CROPS FOR

ANHYDROUS AMMONIA

APPLICATION

Anhydrous ammonia as a fertilizer is suitable for

various crops. It is applied for cereals, industrial

crops, vegetables, sugar beets. It is applied either in

late autumn or in early spring three weeks before

sowing, to avoid seed burns and weak shoots. Since

anhydrous ammonia is applied to moist soil, the

optimal application time for dry regions is spring.

Usually, it is recommended to apply at a distance of

10-12 mm from the plants or in the middle of the row.

Otherwise, the plants may get burned. According to

Steen T.N. (1979), anhydrous ammonia is effective

for growing potatoes, sugar beet and cabbage (Steen,

1979). Thus, the application of 200 kg/ha of

anhydrous ammonia contributed to a higher yield of

the first-grade cabbage compared to 200 kg/ha of

calcium nitrate. In New Zealand, for example, field

experiments were conducted to evaluate the yield of

lettuce, radish and spinach using fertilizers such as

urea, ammonia sulfate and anhydrous ammonia. The

latter produced a higher dry weight of radish

compared to urea and control. Due to the application

of fertilizers in the low-temperature months of June

and July, the plot with anhydrous ammonia received

a higher yield, since anhydrous ammonia stimulated

plant growth and accelerated the recovery of nitrogen

from the soil (Thomas, 1973). Чекаев Н.П. 2020 in

his studies in the Penza region showed that the

application of anhydrous ammonia at a rate of 100 to

200 kg/ha to a depth of 10-20 cm increases the grain

yield of spring wheat cultivars Granny and Triso by

0.48-1.72 t/ha or by 24.4-86.3% compared to the

control. The yield of corn increased by 3.55 t/ha when

anhydrous ammonia was applied in autumn at a rate

of 150 kg/ha alongside the use of diammofoska at a

rate of 300 kg/ha compared with the "control" option

and by 1.53 t/ha when applied (NH3) in the spring at

a rate of 80 kg/ha before sowing corn compared to the

"control". The yield of sugar from sugar beet root

crops increased by 35.5% compared to the variant

without the use of ammonia. Also, field studies in the

Bryansk region on the Lady Clair potato cultivar

showed an increase in yield compared to the

experimental options where ammonium nitrate and

azophos fertilizers were applied (Chekaev, 2020;

Torikov, 2020).

6 CONCLUSIONS

Anhydrous ammonia is the most concentrated

nitrogen fertilizer containing 80-82% nitrogen and is

widely used in many countries of the world as mineral

fertilizer. Despite significant limitations in the use of

this product and many statements about the

deterioration of a number of soil indicators after its

application, today it is mandatory used for high-tech

agriculture in the developed countries of Europe, as

well as in the USA and Canada. Based on the analysis

of various scientific data on the evaluation of the

effectiveness of the use of anhydrous ammonia, no

significant changes were found in the stability of the

soil microstructure as a result of the use of this

product. The only limiting factor to the spread of NH3

application is the significant requirements for

handling NH3 and the associated limitations.

Agricultural producers need to hire companies that

professionally provide a range of services for

transportation and fertilization, or create their own

service of professionals within the company, which is

quite difficult.

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The Use of Anhydrous Ammonia as a Mineral Fertilizer and Its Reaction and Behavior in Soil