Social Media, Political Identities, and Religiosity in Urban Society

A. Bakir Ihsan, Cucu Nurhayati and Muhammad Aqshadigrama

Faculty of Social and Political Sciences, Syarif Hidayatullah State Islamic University Jakarta, Indonesia

Keywords: Political Identities, Social Media, Religious Understanding, Urban Society.

Abstract: Along with the development of information technology, people's religious understanding is widely sourced

from social media. Especially during the Covid-19 pandemic, the increasing intensity of social media access,

allowing influence on the religious community in the midst of diversity of citizens both religiously, ethnically,

and culturally increasingly find patterns and massive. One of the impacts is the strengthening of religious

identity politics as a result of the strengthening of exclusive and integralist (conservative) religious

understanding on the one hand and the pull of pragmatic political interests on the other. This article captures

the influence of social media on the establishment of the urban’s religious understanding and its impact on

religious political identity.

1 INTRODUCTION

As information technology grows massively and the

popularity of some social networking sites, the spread

of Islamic teachings through social media is also

increasing. Indonesian people’s access to social

media has increased over time, especially during the

Covid19 pandemic that forces interaction through

social media. Out of a total of 274.9 million people in

Indonesia, its active social media users reached 170

million. This equates to 61.8 percent of the total

population by January 2021. This figure also

increased by 10 million, or about 6.3 percent

compared to January 2020.

Table 1: Most-Used Social Media Platforms in Indonesia.

Social Media %

Youtube 93,8

Whatsapp 87,7

Insta

86,6

Faceboo

85,5

Twitte

63,6

Social media is a fairly effective means utilized by

a variety of interests, ranging from economic,

political, cultural, and others, including the spread of

religion or so-called cyber-religion. In the millennial

era, the spread of Islam (da’wah) can be done through

social media. It surpasses ta’lim assembly buildings,

mosques, musala, boarding schools, and other

conventional places of Islamic study. A lot of

religious information through social media has given

birth to a new elite of religion, namely “ustadz social

media (socmed)” which at the same time poses a

threat to the authority of teachers, Kiai, or clerics who

have been struggling directly with people’s lives in

each region. Ustadz social media has a wider study

space and exceeds the demographic boundaries of the

worshipers he fosters. Therefore, ustadz social media

is better known and more popular than Kiai or

teachers who do not appear on social media, thus

encouraging the presence of more followers or

worshipers in cyberspace with a variety of

understandings and identities.

The people of the city (urban society) are the

biggest social media viewers. City people can be

verbally meaningful as citizens living in the city, it

can also be a social category that refers to economic

status, education, and more advanced rationality.

Economically and education of the city community is

above average and seen from infrastructure, the city

becomes the center of information technology

development with a variety of variants, including

social media, making it more accessible.

Accessibility is easy and simple, making the city

community easier to connect with social media,

especially in the era of the Covid-19 pandemic that

requires a reduction in the intensity of encounters and

physical interactions. Although the city community is

more superior to the villagers and therefore more

rational, but at some point, they are more

conservative. This can be seen from the tendency of

conservatism and religious understanding of the city

Ihsan, A., Nurhayati, C. and Aqshadigrama, M.

Social Media, Political Identities, and Religiosity in Urban Society.

DOI: 10.5220/0011240100003376

In Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on Recent Innovations (ICRI 2021), pages 24-30

ISBN: 978-989-758-602-6

that is more rational and has a higher average

education than the villagers. Therefore, the tendency

to strengthen religious identity politics among the city

community becomes interesting to see by measuring

the intensity and accessibility of religious social

media and the religious patterns it obtains.

2 SOCIAL MEDIA, RELIGION,

AND POLITICAL IDENTITIES

The popularity of someone ustadz on social media is

directly proportional to the netizen’s belief in ustadz

socmed, while Kiai or speakers who have high

knowledge but do not appear on social media are not

known to the public so they have minimal followers.

Social media is the same as the science of knowledge

depends on the way society in addressing and using it

in the digital age. Social media can provide

information quickly, but the public must be good at

understanding, selecting, and filtering information

that provides benefits of not receiving it unanimously

and completely. Adam et al. (Adam et al., 2015)

explained that social media is used as a medium of

da’wah by various religions such as Judaism,

Christianity, Hinduism, Buddhism, and Islam.

Today’s mass media has become the “largest

distillation” for religious preaching, and this space

has been used as a means of spreading religion and

communication between peoples, especially by

western societies. Malik and Chairani (?), explained

that there are two most popular social networking

sites used as a medium of spreading Islam. The first

is Facebook; it is often used as a medium of

preaching, for example by creating a group, one of the

most popular discussion groups “Learning Islam.”

The group provides fairly rich information about

Islam from several competent sources. Lin and Utz

(Lin and Utz, 2015) in their study of the effect of

Facebook social media use on emotions, as quoted by

mentioned that Facebook users have more positive

feelings when reading positive status but if it is too

strong it will have an impact on feelings of sadness

and sudden depression.

In the case of Indonesia, the uploaded religious

material is sometimes associated with political

competition motives aimed at degrading the

opponent’s popularity. During national and local

elections, Quranic verses are adapted and used to win

that have an impact on the sealing of society wrapped

in religious emotions. That fact is a logical

consequence of the availability of social media that

tends to be uncontrolled. Islamic material on social

media has a positive and negative impact that

intertwines like two sides of a currency. On the one

hand, the number of religious sites makes it easier for

people to learn Islamic teachings that are adapted to

their time without having to come directly to the

learning forum. However, on the other hand, “instant”

religious understanding often gives birth to instant

understanding without comprehensive references

resulting in a narrow and exclusive understanding. In

its extreme form, such understanding gives birth to

anarchism, hate speech increasingly until widespread

of fake news without examining the main sources that

have legitimacy authority.

Studying religion through social media without

control can lead to intolerance and extremism loaded

with racist, hateful, and religious and political

sentiments, especially in the midst of the high

intensity of social media access as is the case in

Indonesia. In 2017, Tetra Pak Index recorded about

132 million internet users in Indonesia with more than

106 million people using social media every month

and 85% of them accessing social media through

mobile devices. The rapid development of social

media users in Indonesia, especially with the Covid-

19 pandemic that requires people to communicate

more often in cyberspace and avoid direct contact has

an impact on the increasing level of accessibility of

the public to social media. According to data released

by the marketing agency ”We Are Social” and social

media management platform “Hootsuite” in January

2021, social media access in Indonesia has reached

202.6 million people with a penetration of 73.7

percent and 96.4 percent of them use smartphones to

access the internet.

The above facts show that social media is a very

strategic and decisive entrance to the religious

understanding and religiosity of a person (netizen)

that ultimately affects identity politics. The three

important components that are intertwined in the

study of this article are social media, religion, and

political identity.

First, social media. In media theory, the most

important element in the process of information

extension is the connectedness between different

groups or individuals. From the interconnection, an

interest is faced with other interests to then take a firm

and clear stance. The development of information

technology causes individual communication and

interaction with other individuals to change. Social

media leads to individuals being able to communicate

beyond the limits of physical existence or state

authority. Individuals become so independent in

establishing communication with other individuals.

That freedom has an impact on the not selecting of

Social Media, Political Identities, and Religiosity in Urban Society

information that can be obtained by individuals,

except selfselection skills. An individual becomes so

sovereign in determining his or her life orientation

and behavior based on the information that he or she

accesses through social media. Social media in this

study is not seen as just a tool of social

communication, but more than that, in social media

there is an ideology at once with a lot of interests.

Social media is a force that not only moves thinking

but can also drive action and even undermine a

regime of power. The case in Egypt and some Arab

Spring countries demonstrates the strong role of

social media in aggregating the collective interests of

society. With the development of social media and

higher public access in interactions in cyberspace, the

entire movement and activities of the community

have to do with the effect of the existence of social

media itself. Social media such as Facebook, Twitter,

Youtube, and Instagram are media that are loved by

the public in general, including Indonesians. This

ferocity is not only as consumers and users but also

not infrequently make social media effective

dissemination of religious understanding. The

effectiveness of the influence of social media on the

mindset and even the actions of the community is

inseparable from the intensity of social media in

providing a variety of interactive information and

being the closest listener to various problems faced

by the community, including in religious issues.

Thus, the correlation between social media and the

formation of orientation and knowledge or

understanding of religion and practice in life can be

judged based on its proximity or affirmative attitude

towards religious of politics identity.

Second, religion and religious. In social life,

religion becomes an important element that drives

interaction. It refers not only to religious understanding

but also to the expression of understanding in the form

of its attitudes and behaviors as an integral part of its

religious beliefs. Clifford Geertz (Geertz and Darnton,

2017) referred to religion as a symbol system that can

create a calm mood and be a motivation in acting,

formulating the conception of its existence to

encourage the actions of its adherents. “a religion is:

(1) a system of symbols which acts to (2) establish

powerful, pervasive, and long-lasting moods and

motivations in men by (3) formulating conceptions of

a general order of existence and (4) clothing these

conceptions with such an aura of factuality that (5) the

moods and motivations seem uniquely realistic.” In the

context of religious views on differences can be seen

from the perspective of Alan Race (Race, 1983) with

his tripolar typology, namely exclusionism,

inclusionism, and pluralism. These three theological

perception typologies have an impact on social

interaction patterns. Exclusive groups are those who

place their religion as the most correct and otherwise

false, misguided, and deviant. This view results in an

act that always tries to straighten and show the way

of truth as the only way. At the extreme point of this

paradigm of exclusionism confirms the existence of

other religious groups that are considered different.

Even worse, the negation is supported by political

interests through policies that favor certain religious

groups. The view of inclusionism is the antithesis of

exclusionism. Inclusionism refers to attitudes or

understandings that place salvation on other religions

on God’s blessings. The way of salvation in other

religions is a form of God’s given affection, not

inherent in each religion itself. Truth is more of a

form of God’s “affirmative” towards other religions.

In contrast to the exclusionism that places the

monopoly of truth and salvation on only one religion,

inclusionism expands the space of salvation in other

religions for God’s affection for that other religion. In

this perspective of inclusionism is still stored the

dominance of certain religions, but it can provide a

way of salvation for adherents of other religions.

Religious egos still arise because of salvation even

more widely, but remain in the dominance of certain

religions. This is what then triggered the emergence

of the next typology, namely pluralism that places

religions as a reality that has its truth. This pluralism

viewpoint requires all religions to be respectful,

tolerant, and moderate. In this view, there is no single

truth that causes other groups to be wrong and

therefore tried. Religious pluralism places each

religion as a carrier of goodness under his/her beliefs

and can synergize in expressing his/her religion

through measured and constructive work for

togetherness as a people as well as citizens.

Third, political identity is an effort to fight for the

interests of certain individuals or groups whether

related to ethnicity, gender, race, or religion. This is

especially evident in the second half of the twentieth

century as demonstrated by the ongoing movement

demanding justice for disadvantaged minority groups

(Elshayyal, 2018). Historically, identity of politics

was an expression of a group (in America) that felt

oppressed and marginalized by majority domination

in a country (Maarif, 2010). In its development,

political identity is a resistance to diversity that is

considered threatening to its existence. Religious,

tribe, racial, and ethnic identity in Indonesian society

is very strong because it becomes part of social life

and becomes a reality of the diversity of citizens.

Ethnic, tribe, linguistic, and religious differences

become the spirit that moves the Indonesian nation in

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one unity without melting the diversity. This is a

much stronger capital than even developed countries

that have not fully managed to place differences in

skin color in the unity of their country. That identity

becomes crucial amidst the diversity of citizens when

used to increase incentives on behalf of groups or

communities and to define other groups. This is

where the issue of social life is easily an issue by

placing identity as a massive driving tool. In this

context, religion as an identity that is considered very

visceral in social life becomes a commodity

constructed to provoke antipathy towards other

groups. Identity politics that takes place in Indonesia

leads to the strengthening of the majority religious

issue in the hope of gaining massive incentives,

especially in the context of political interests. This is

the paradox of political identity that is actually a

medium of a struggle for marginalized groups to

obtain their constitutional rights as citizens, not by the

majority group that is instead used to strengthen its

existence as well as a threat to minority groups.

3 SOCIAL MEDIA AND THE

DOMINATION OF

CONSERVATISM

According to the findings of research conducted by

the Center for the Study of Islam and Society (PPIM)

2020, there is a dominance of conservative religious

narratives on social media. Although other religious

understandings also color religious discourses,

especially on Twitter platforms, but the buzz of

conservatism dominates the conversation in the

virtual realm with a percentage (67.2%), followed by

moderates (22.2%), liberals (6.1%), and Islamists

(4.5%). From 2009-2019, the conservative use of

hashtags became the most popular. Hashtags that are

neutral in use are often associated with conservative

religious beliefs. This conservatism includes religious

politics, citizenship, gender, and others. The tendency

of religious politics or precisely religious

politicization is directly proportional to the period of

political contestation, especially at the national level,

and began to strengthen since 2014 with two

groupings of extreme; us and them.

Table 2: Religious Discourse on Twitter.

Discourse Percenta

Conservative 67,2 %

Moderate 22,2 %

Liberal 6,1 %

Islamists 4,5%

Geographically, this study found the fact that Java

Island is an arena that becomes a contest of religious

understanding, especially in Jakarta. Moderates

dominated discourse in cyberspace with 67.11%,

followed by conservatives (60.11%), Islamists

(53.19%), and liberals (44.64%). In addition to

Jakarta, liberal narratives emerged in East Java with

a proportion of 22.62%. The contribution of young

and progressive groups in the NU (Nahdlatul Ulama)

body in East Java is quite instrumental to the high

proportion of liberalism in East Java. In line with the

findings of other research, West Java occupies a

position as a province that has a fairly high proportion

of Islamist and conservative narratives with a high

number of 15% and 10%.

Table 3: Religious Discourse on Twitter.

Discourse Percenta

Moderate 67,11 %

Conservative 60,11 %

Islamists 53,19 %

Liberal 44,64 %

Although generally the most moderate religious

discourse, but the difference with conservative

understanding is not very significant, especially when

combined with Islamist groups, the dominance of

conservative-Islamist groups is very dominant

coloring religious discourse on social media.

According to the results of the study entitled “The

Use of Social Media as a Medium of Islamic Learning

Towards Students at the College of Higher

Education” found that 58.7% of respondents follow

the issue of Islam through social media. Islamic social

media accounts were followed by 52 respondents.

A total of 52.2% of respondents said the reason

they follow social media is that they know the

character. A total of 82.6% of respondents said that

they always follow the issue of Islam being discussed

and the same figures show that when hearing about

Islam they always seek the truth of the issue. Direct

involvement of respondents in uploading status

related with Islamic issues only 28.3% and only

32.6% of respondents who often discuss Islam on

social media. It also found that 85% agreed that

young people believe that social media is effective in

becoming a medium of preaching. This indicates that

the method of spreading Islam in cyberspace,

especially on social networking sites tends to be more

frequently accessed by Muslims, especially for those

who are young and have solid activities. One of the

advantages of Islamic learning methods on social

networking sites is that there is no element of

coercion and bonding. This suggests that the stigma

Social Media, Political Identities, and Religiosity in Urban Society

of coercion, indoctrination and application of

coercive dogmatism does not occur in Islamic

learning methods through social networking sites.

Interesting findings from respondents showed that

Muslim adolescents with better education tended to

pay more attention to the references and validity of

literature presented on social media. Thus, Islamic

learning through social networking sites also needs to

be collaborated with the selection of accounts to be

referenced; this is to avoid anonymous accounts that

sometimes only spread hate viruses. The role of

religious leaders still occupies an important position

because the tendency of the Muslim community in

Indonesia still shows dependence on religious

leaders.

Table 4: Students Perception of the Role of Religious Social

Media.

Statement Yes % No %

H1 44 95.7 2 4.3

H2 15 32.6 31 67.4

H3 34 73.9 12 26.1

H4 27 58.7 19 41.3

H5 24 52.2 22 47.8

H6 38 82.6 8 17.4

H7 38 82.6 8 17.4

H8 45 97.8 1 2.2

Note:

H1.Actively use social media

H2.Post something on your social media account

every day

H3.Active or passive users

H4.Following ustadz accounts/religious figures

or other Islamic accounts

H5.Following ustadz or religious leaders because

they know their background

H6.Following the issue of Islam happening in

Indonesia through social media

H7.Check news sources

H8.Da’wah can be done through social media

Islamic society should realize that the use of

internet technology in preaching aims to facilitate the

delivery of religious advice globally to people in

various regions. On the other hand, the quality of

speakers on social media varies both in terms of

lecture contests and the breadth of religious treasures.

Speakers on social media can be categorized into

three groups. First, a true dai who has scientific

authority is known to the public. Secondly, it is from

a religious group that has scientific authority but is

not known to the public. Third, dai is not from a

religious group but has a desire to carry out da’wah

and provide knowledge through social media.

Therefore, internet users should make comparisons in

obtaining knowledge through social media by

tracking the original source as a tabayyun concept

(Adam et al., 2015). In the context of religious

learning, sometimes not all problems can be answered

directly by the internet. This is where the importance

of the role of teachers can directly communicate the

problems faced. The results of this study show that

social media has a vital role in Islamic learning and

becomes a tool of da’wah.

For the Muslim community, the use of social

media as a medium of religious learning is very useful

as a medium of da’wah that is relevant to the current

context. The Internet is a medium that cannot be

eliminated in the delivery of information, content, and

thoughts to people who want to convey and obtain

religious information. The Internet can be a medium

of knowledge, study, and thought for the community.

Some detrimental elements that appear cannot be

used as a barrier for the community in its use as a

medium of religious learning. Phobias in internet use

coupled with the attitude of distancing technology

will cause the group to be alienated and get rid of

technology because it is considered not to give good

and blessings, not to practice the rules of learning and

so on can cause Islamic society to be left behind in

actualizing thought and marginalized in religious

innovation.

The Use of Youtube as a Medium of Religious

Learning in Generation Y in Terengganu, Malaysia.

Generation Y is a generation born between 1980 and

2000 born in the technological era. Youtube is a very

popular social media and often used by generation Y

to get useful information in various forms of images,

videos, or animations. Youtube is an interesting

medium for generation Y because it combines audio

and visual elements that provide innovative and

creative benefits in the learning process. This study

was conducted on 100 respondents and showed the

results of the usefulness and usefulness factors of

Youtube in religious studies. Youtube is a medium

that is often used in seeking information that

combines audio and visuals innovatively and

creatively in the learning process.

Table 5: Religious Content Accessed Through Youtube.

Reli

ious Themes Percenta

Watch reli

ious movies 85 %

Reli

ious lectures 20 %

Religious

entertainmen

17 %

Learn the Qur'an 5 %

Learn worship 3 %

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A total of 47% of respondents stated using

youtube media to watch religious lectures, religious

issues as much as 20%, religious entertainment 17%,

studying the Qur’an 5%, watching religious films

85%, and learning prayer or worship only 3%. The

use of media in the learning process has to do with the

level of education of its users. The higher the level of

education the higher the level of media use because

they feel the benefits of the internet in studying

religion. In the context of using youtube, the benefits

of youtube become important in providing religious

input for users. To ensure users don’t fall into

mistakes and misunderstandings in internet use,

religious knowledge is key in decision making. In

other words, studying religion from the internet is not

in its original position but previously had knowledge

as a filter of information obtained.

Studying religion through social media should be

supported by policies in selecting religious content

and sites. Social media is currently considered able to

meet the needs of many people. Starting from the

need to find information, communicate, interact, open

up, even to religious needs. Activities on social media

that meet one’s religious needs are searching for

religious material, discussing religion, and also

opening up about the religion that is outlined in the

status of writing, images, or videos. In an

unstructured survey on Facebook, some social media

users felt that with the rise of Islamic material in the

social media timeline, they were increasingly

interested in studying Islam, feeling a better

understanding of Islam, and felt their daily behavior

was increasing and more appropriate with Islamic

guidance. Islamic material on social media is also

considered useful for those who feel they have limited

time to attend learning forums. The positive impact

will be felt when netizens choose an in-depth study

and have certain studies and themes in religion. But

on the other hand, there are also concerns about the

rise of religious extremism, the rise of hate speech, to

lies on social media that if not able to be clarified, will

be stuck on a false understanding. This is where the

urgency of the rules of the game in social media, so

that citizens remain controlled understanding so that

it has a constructive impact on national life,

statehood, and religion.

Social media as one of the effective media to

study Islam can not be used as a primary media to

meet all aspects of one’s religious needs. To gain a

more comprehensive understanding, it is appropriate

to study Islam directly to religious leaders, by

attending formal classes, and text literature from

trusted scholars.

4 CONCLUSIONS

Islamic learning through social media among the

rational circle, as the characteristics of the city

community, has a strong enough influence. The

results of the study of “The Use of Social Media

Instagram as a Medium of Communication Among

Muslim Students” of the Faculty of Social and

Political University of Riau, for example, showed that

the use of Instagram in following Islamic religious

learning affects student behavior, be it elements of

cognition, affection, and psychomotor of their

behavior at university. This change is seen in the way

you dress, talk and start activities on campus. Some

students take religious lessons and tabligh akbar by

obtaining information and communicating through

Instagram. The owner of the da’wah account acts as a

teacher by providing informative messages and

motivations from religiously sourced educational

backgrounds. Motives for using Instagram as a

communication medium for religious learning are

two kinds, namely in-order-to motifs (future motives)

and causal motives (past motives). These motives

explain the reason why students do not study religion

by using religious studies or lectures on learning

forums. Second, the message is shorter, more precise,

and not confusing compared to those taken from the

Qur’an and hadith. Third, posts made on Instagram

motivate students to keep growing. Communication

information messages from Islamic da’wah accounts

contained in captions and photos uploaded as a visual

medium provide convenience for users in

understanding the content of messages. The learning

process that transforms informants begins with a

change in cognition, based on knowledge and

understanding of the application of information

submitted by Islamic da’wah accounts on Instagram.

understanding of the application of information

submitted by Islamic da'wah accounts on Instagram.

Social media contributes to religious

understanding as to the findings of several previous

studies that in this study are associated or influential

to political identity that if left unchecked will give rise

to a broader social effect, in the form of social divides

based on religious identity amid diversity. The

rationality of the people of the city is not a guarantee

of the strengthening of rational religion, which is

based on religious rules that can be accepted by

reason, as religion always invites to think. From some

of the findings above, it is clear that social media has

a dominant influence on the political identity of

rational Jakarta people with relatively high levels of

education and economic income. The intensity and

massification of social media content have become a

Social Media, Political Identities, and Religiosity in Urban Society

hegemonic force that at some point ”forces”

rationality to be subject to the emotionality of

religion. This problem could not be solved by the

establishment or dissolution of the organization or

what was considered conservative because the policy

instead triggered the involvement of some citizens to

enter into conservatism understanding that is directly

proportional to the identity politics of the city

community. This is where the need for mapping to

social media is signaled to have an impact on the

dynamics of political identity, so that constructive

and concrete steps can be taken for the creation of a

moderate and tolerant social order without having to

deny let alone establish social media that becomes a

strategic foothold in social interaction, especially

during a pandemic.

It needs comprehensive and synergistic measures

involving all elements in both the state and society for

the establishment of a moderate order of life in the

midst of an increasingly hegemonic social media

presence. The steps that must be taken in addressing

the rapid development of social media that is directly

proportional to the religious spirit of the community,

especially the city community, is first, filtering the

information obtained on social media. Information

that is provocative, trying to divide with religious

justification is enough as to be own knowledge and

does not need to be disseminated. Second, clarify and

confirm the information. Any information obtained

on social media needs to be clarified as well as

confirmed to people or figures who have capabilities

in the field of religion so that there is a balance of

understanding and clear scientific references so that

netizens can draw balanced conclusions. Third, the

provision of constructive social media content. The

existence of diverse social media with diverse sources

and quality, it is needed to be balanced by the

existence of social media with moderate content so

that the public can find answers to religious social

problems in a moderate manner.

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