Conservation Studies of Korean Stone Heritages

Chan Hee Lee

Department of Cultural Heritage Conservation Sciences, Kongju National University, Gongju, 32588, Republic of Korea

Keywords: Korean stone heritages, Conservation, Weathering, Damage, Environmental control.

Abstract: In Republic of Korea, a peninsula country located at the eastern region of the Asian continent, is mostly

composed of granite and gneiss. The southern Korean peninsula stated approximately 7,000 tangible cultural

heritages. Of these, the number of stone heritages are 1,882 (26.8%), showing a diverse types such as stone

pagoda (25.8%), stone Buddha statues (23.5%), stone monuments (18.1%), petroglyph, dolmen, fossils and

etc. Igneous rock accounts for the highest portion of the stone used for establishing Korean stone heritages,

forming approximately 84% of state-designated cultural properties. Among these, granite was used most

often, 68.2%, followed by diorite for 8.2%, and sandstone, granite gneiss, tuff, slate, marble, and limestone

at less than 4% each. Furthermore, values of the Korean stone heritages are discussed as well as various

attempts for conservation of the original forms of these heritages. It is generally known that the weathering

and damage degrees of stone heritage are strongly affected by temperature and precipitation. The most Korean

stone heritages are corresponded to areas of middle to high weathering according to topography and annual

average temperature and precipitation of Korea. Therefore, examination of environmental control methods

are required for conservation considering the importance of stone heritages exposed to the outside conditions,

and monitoring and management systems should be established for stable conservation in the long term.

1 INTRODUCTION

Republic of Korea, a peninsula country located at the

eastern region of the Asian continent, has mountains

covering approximately 70% of its entire territory and

four distinct seasons (Fig. 1a). Traditional religions

practiced here are Buddhism and Confucianism,

which have had a considerable influence on cultural

development, thought and behavior in the ancient

Korean kingdoms and states. After the modern era,

Christianity and Catholicism were introduced in

Korea from the West. The first state of the Korean

peninsula was Gojoseon (BC 2333 to BC 108),

followed by the Three Kingdoms Period (Goguryeo,

Baekje and Silla; BC 57 to 675), Unified Silla (676 to

935) and Balhae (698 to 926). Goryeo (918 to 1392)

and Joseon (1392 to 1910) Dynasty followed in the

middle and middle to modern periods, respectively.

Through the colonial period from 1910 to 1945,

Korea achieved independence, whereas North and

South were divided based on the 38th parallel. In

1948, Republic of Korea was formally established.

More than half of the Korean peninsula is

composed of granite and granite gneiss. The former

was mainly intruded during the Triassic, Jurassic and

Cretaceous periods, whereas the latter was mostly

metamor-phosed due to granitization of sedimentary

rock during the Pre-Cambrian eons (Fig. 1b). These

rocks were exposed to the surface of the earth due to

diastrophism during several periods, and uplift and

denudation phenomena of the Korean peninsula

generated from the beginning of the Tertiary period,

thereby distributing the sedimentary rock on the

gneiss (Cheong et al., 2013). This geological

distribution of the Korean peninsula is closely related

to selection of materials for establishing stone

heritages as well as construction techniques.

The National Research Institute of Cultural

Heritage in Korea (2011) stated that approximately

7,000 tangible cultural properties exist in Korea

including national treasures, tangible cultural

properties of cities and provinces, and cultural

property materials. Of these, the number of stone

heritages is 1,882 (26.8%), showing a diverse

composition range from petroglyphs and dolmens

during the prehistoric ages to stone pagodas, stone

Buddha statues, stone monuments, rock-carved

Buddha statues, stone stupa, and flagpole supports

during the historical period. In particular, stone

pagodas (25.8%), stone Buddha statues (23.5%) and

stone monuments (18.1%) account for the highest

portions of the existing stone heritages (Fig. 1c).

Lee, C.

Conservation Studies of Korean Stone Heritages.

DOI: 10.5220/0010294500003051

In Proceedings of the International Conference on Culture Heritage, Education, Sustainable Tourism, and Innovation Technologies (CESIT 2020), pages 42-56

ISBN: 978-989-758-501-2

Figure 1: (a) Location of Korean peninsula. (b) Korean geological map. (c) Distribution map of representative Korean stone

heritages (Lee and Chun, 2013). 1; Dinosaur footprint fossil sites in Uhang-ri, Haenam. 2; Dinosaur trackways in Daechi-ri,

Haman. 3; Bangudae petroglyphs in Ulju. 4; Dolmen in Bugeun-ri, Ganghwa. 5; Silla Stele in Bongpyeong-ri, Uljin. 6; Five-

story Stone Pagoda in Jeongrimsaji Temple Site, Buyeo. 7; Rock-carved Buddha Triad in Yonghyeon-ri, Seosan. 8; Stone

Pagoda in Mireuksaji Temple Site, Iksan. 9; Chemseongdae in Gyeongju. 10; Dabo Pagoda and Three-story Stone Pagoda of

Bulguksa Temple. 11; Five-story Stone Pagoda of the Seongjusaji Temple Site in Boryeong. 12; Rock-carved Buddha Statues

of the Namharisaji Temple Site in Jeungpyeong. 13; Stone Standing Maitreya Statue of the Gwanchoksa Temple in Nonsan.

14; Five-story Stone Pagoda of the Magoksa Temple in Gongju. 15; Seoul City Wall. 16; Tombstone of Chungmugong Yi at

the Chungryeolsa Shrine in Namhae. 17; Gyeongju Seokbinggo. 18; Andong Seokbinggo. 19; Changnyeong Seokbinggo. 20;

Hyeonpung Seokbinggo. 21; Cheongdo Seokbinggo. 22; Yeongsan Seokbinggo.

Conservation Studies of Korean Stone Heritages

In this study, representative cultural properties were

selected according to type and material among

Korean stone heritages established during the

geologic, prehistoric and historical ages. Based on the

results of previous studies, each of the selected stone

heritages is briefly described in terms of historical

value, lithological characteristics, stone provenance,

deterioration state, non-destructive diagnosis and

conservation treatment. Furthermore, globally out-

standing characteristics and values of the Korean

stone heritages are discussed as well as various

attempts for preserving the original forms of these

heritages.

2 STONE HERITAGES OF GEO-

LOGICAL AND PREHISTORIC

AGES

2.1. Dinosaur Footprint Fossils of

Uhang-ri and Daechi-ri

Korea is globally renowned as an excavation site for

dinosaur footprint fossils, which are observed more

frequently than skeleton fossils and have been

unearthed in more than 20 regions. Main dinosaur

footprint fossil sites are shale-rich lacustrine

sedimentary rocks of various sub-basins such as the

Cretaceous Gyeongsang Basin (Huh et al., 2003).

Dinosaur footprint fossils of ornithopods are found

most frequently although those of theropods and

sauropods are also observed. Representative dinosaur

footprint fossils are as follows.

Large (Fig. 2a) and extra-large dinosaur footprint

fossils (Fig. 2b) in Uhang-ri, Haenam, mainly consist

of black shale (Fig. 2c); only extra-large dinosaur

footprint fossils in the open air are composed of

tuffaceous sandstone that includes quartz and albite

phenocrysts with rhyolite-rich matrix. Notable

physical damage to these footprint fossils are cracks,

delamination, fracture zone, and re-damage by repair

materials; that of chemical damage is efflorescence

(thenardite, Na2SO4) generated along the current

trace of water that flowed into fossil sites. Moreover,

the results of physical characteristics analysis of the

fossil sites using measurement of ultrasonic velocity

indicate that the fossils in these sites are highly

weathered (Yoo et al., 2012).

Dinosaur trackways in Daechi-ri, Haman, were

found in shale with purple and grayish-green strata

(Fig. 2d), consist of two ornithopod trackways with

an average depth of 29 mm and one sauropod

trackway with an average depth of 30 mm for manus

and 35 mm for pes (Fig. 2e). However, these fossils

underwent severe physical damage by cracks due to

relocation more than twice after the first excavation

in 1993 in addition to inappropriate conservation

treatment and secondary deterioration by plaster

repair materials, thereby requiring for comprehensive

improvement.

Thus, in 2008, scientific conservation treatment

was performed to remove previous repair materials,

which included cleaning and desalination through an

impregnation method, preliminary joining using a

three-dimensional drawing, fabrication of a

fiberglass-reinforced plastic (FRP) mold on the floor

surface, joining and filling of cracks and missing

parts, application of anti-swelling agents and

consolidating (Fig. 2f). Detailed investigation and

scientific conservation treatment of dinosaur

trackways greatly contributed to establishing a

customized conservation system (Lee et al., 2012).

2.2. Bangudae Petroglyphs

Petroglyphs are paintings or patterns carved on the

rock surfaces by using sharp parts of hard stones or

metal tools. These images serve as valuable materials

to represent the contemporary aesthetic conscious-

ness of ancestors, such as life, religion and

philosophy, who lived before the invention of writing

systems in the prehistoric age. Such artwork is a

universal cultural phenomenon; approximately

400,000 petroglyphs are widely distributed across

approximately 120 countries worldwide. Of these, 14

petroglyphs have been designated as World Heritage.

At present, approximately 20 petroglyphs exist in

Korea. In particular, petroglyphs in Cheonjeon-ri and

Bangudae in Deagok-ri, Ulju, are included on the

tentative lists (2010) of UNESCO World Heritages.

CESIT 2020 - International Conference on Culture Heritage, Education, Sustainable Tourism, and Innovation Technologies

Figure 1: Photographs showing the large (a) and extra-large dinosaur (b) footprint fossils in Uhang-ri, Haenam. (c) Black

shale composing of the large dinosaur footprint fossils. The shale lamination by accumulated clay and quartz (d), surface

depth modelling (e) and conservation treatments (f) of the dinosaur trackways in Daechi-ri, Haman. (Lee et al., 2012; Yoo et

al., 2012).

Among them, Korea National Treasure No. 285,

the Bangudae petroglyphs in Daegok-ri, Ulju,

represent first stone painting in Korea, and are

regarded as the most sophisticated relic to reflect life

of prehistoric people. In these petroglyphs, diverse

objects of expression such as whales, tigers, deer,

boar, turtles, ships, nets, harpoons, people and simply

human faces are more implicitly carved than those in

other remains (Fig. 3a). In particular, eight types of

whales and complex religious paintings related to

whaling are main expressions representing the

traditions of the whaling culture (Cultural Heritage

Administration of Korea, 2012).

However, the Bangudae petroglyphs are

repeatedly flooded and exposed for four to eight

months per year due to the Sayeon Dam constructed

in 1965, six years before the discovery of these rock

carvings. As a result, dark green hornfelsified shale,

rock properties of the petroglyph, forms a weathered

layer with an average porosity of 25% at a certain

depth from the surface, thereby showing differences

in mineral and chemical compositions compared with

the fresh surface with an average porosity of 0.4%

(Fig. 3b). The result of deterioration degree

evaluation indicates that approximately 23.8% of the

main rock surface areas were damaged (Fig. 3c) and

the lower areas of the petroglyphs have weaker

physical properties than those of the upper areas (Lee

et al., 2012). As such, Ulsan City and many

researchers including those with the Cultural Heritage

Administration of Korea are seeking a scheme of

permanently conserving the Bangudae petroglyphs.

Conservation Studies of Korean Stone Heritages

Figure 3: General view and occurrence (a), EPMA result of the weathered and unweathered parts (b), and deterioration map

3 STONE HERITAGES OF

HISTORICAL AGE

3.1 Five-story Stone Pagoda in

Jeongrimsaji Temple Site, Buyeo

(estimated the 6th to 7th century)

The Five-story Stone Pagoda in Jeongrimsaji Temple

Site, Buyeo (National Treasure No. 9), a valuable

pagoda constructed during the Baekje Kingdom, has

distinct historical and artistic values in that its original

form is well maintained, except for the upper part (Fig.

4a). In particular, this stone pagoda effectively

expresses the beauty of a simple and vibrant stone

tower by eschewing the complexities of wooden

structures. It is 8.92 m in height and consists of 149

members. With regard to style, its basement part is

significantly lower than its body part.

The pagoda’s rock material is porphyritic biotite

granodiorite and contains pegmatite veinlets, basic

xenoliths, and is consistently developed porphyritic

texture of plagioclase (Fig. 4b, 4c). The results of

provenance interpretation confirmed that Ong-

nyeobong Peak, which is located 15 km to 20 km from

Jeongrimsa Temple, and Mt. Hwa have same

mineralogical and geochemical characteristics with

those of this pagoda. In particular, ancient quarrying

traces were observed at many outcrops in this region,

thereby supporting the hypothesis that this region

could have been used to supply the stone (Fig. 4d).

Thus, the stone required for establishing this pagoda is

likely to have been supplied to Buyeo through the

Geum River from Ganggyeong Port (Fig. 4e, 4f) (Lee

et al., 2007).

3.2 Rock-carved Buddha Triad in

Yonghyeon-ri, Seosan (estimated

the 6th to 7th century)

The Rock-carved Buddha Triad in Yonghyeon-ri,

Seosan (National Treasure No. 84) is a representative

Buddha statue of the Baekje Kingdom constructed in

a rocky cliff of a gorge in Gaya Mountain; Pensive

Bodhisattva and Standing Bodhisattva are carved on

both sides of Standing Buddha (Fig. 5a). This Buddha

triad statue has been considered as the greatest

contemporary masterpiece because of its refined

carving style and unique triad composition. It is a

valuable cultural heritage that indicates contemporary

Buddhist culture and interchange relations such as the

spread of Buddha style from China and India based on

geopolitical location (Moon, 1999; Park, 2005). The

Buddha triad statue is carved on a rock slope

consisting of light gray medium-grained biotite

granite, and it shows low slope stability because rock

blocks of different sizes and shapes are formed across

the entire sides due to development of irregular

discontinuities (Lee et al., 2010).

CESIT 2020 - International Conference on Culture Heritage, Education, Sustainable Tourism, and Innovation Technologies

Figure 4: (a) Field occurrence of the Five-story Stone Pagoda in the Jeongrimsaji Temple Site. (b) Porphyritic granodiorite

containing pegmatite veinlets and basic xenoliths. (c) Mineral assemblage of plagioclase with albite twin, biotite altered partly

into chlorite, quartz and sphene. (d) Photographs showing the ancient quarrying trace from outcrop in the Oknyeobong Peak.

(e) Geum River nearby the Oknyeobong Peak. (f) A map showing the distance of movement of rock properties between the

stone pagoda, Oknyeobong Peak and the Mt. Hwa. (Lee et al., 2007).

In addition, since an enclosed traditional wooden

shelter was installed to protect this Buddha triad

statue from the atmospheric environment in 1965,

internal leakage problems have occurred continually

(Fig. 5b). In particular, limitations in the shelter’s

protective function owing to damage have resulted in

deteriorations to this statue by condensation, dust

deposition, and efflorescence. Moreover, visitors

have been inconvenienced due to a narrow observing

space in the protective canopy and insufficient

lighting. Consequently, to improve conservation and

the viewing conditions, the walls of the shelter were

partly disassembled in 2006 (Fig. 5c), and the shelter

was completely dismantled in 2007 (Fig. 5d). After

demolishing the shelter, conservation treatment and

maintenance of the surrounding environment were

performed in 2008; currently, the Buddha triad statue

is exposed to the external environment with no

protecting structure (Lee et al., 2014).

Figure 5: (a) Field occurrences (1959) of the Rock-carved Buddha Triad. (b) Enclosed traditional wooden shelter of Buddha

statue. (c) Semi-opening shelter partly disassembled the door and both walls. (d) The current state completely demolished the

shelter. (Lee et al., 2010).

Conservation Studies of Korean Stone Heritages

3.3 Stone Pagoda in Mireuksaji Temple

Site, Iksan (the 7th century)

Mireuksa Temple is the greatest Buddhist temple of

Baekje Kingdom established by King Mu (600 to

641), the 30th King of the Baekje. Three pagodas and

three main buildings are divided by corridors to form

respective areas (Fig. 6a). The middle area is

estimated to be a wooden pagoda site, and the eastern

pagoda was restored to nine stories in 1992. The

current Mireuksaji Stone Pagoda (National Treasure

No. 11) is a western pagoda located in the west area;

more than half has been destroyed except from the

basement to part of the sixth story (Fig. 6b). The stone

embankment was reinforced up to the first story based

on the west side, and the upper part was covered by

concrete for repair in 1915 (Fig. 6c). In January 2009,

the Buddhist reliquary was excavated at the first-story

center pillar stone of the stone pagoda. Inscription of

the Gihae year (639) confirmed in the golden sarira

enrichment record show the construction period of the

west pagoda and identify the main founders and

characteristics of the Mireuksa Temple (National

Research Institute of Cultural Heritage in Korea;

NRICH, 2013).

In 1998, a safety diagnosis results reported that

the structural stability of the stone pagoda was low,

and it was determined in 1999 to execute

deconstruction and repair. Since October 2001,

deconstruction, restoration, and maintenance have

been performed by the NRICH. Thus far,

deconstruction of the pagoda has been completed

except for the basement. During the processes of

deconstruction and excavation investment, detailed

data were collected through research in various fields

such as conservation science (Fig. 6d), construction

(Fig. 6e, 6f), archaeology, and art history, and repair

works for restoration (Fig. 6g) are currently being

performed (NRICH, 2014). The members of this

stone pagoda are composed of biotite granite, the

same rock type as that occurring near Mt. Mireuk, and

quarrying traces are scattered throughout the

mountain area (Yang et al., 2000). Furthermore, the

deterioration degree of the stone pagoda members

was evaluated, and method for original restoration

and selection of replacement stone were examined

(Lee et al., 2009; Kim et al., 2011).

3.4 Cheomseongdae in Gyeongju (the

century)

Cheomseongdae in Gyeongju (National Treasure No.

31) is an astronomical observation structure

constructed during the reign of Queen Sunduk (AD

647), the 27th ruler of Silla Kingdom, and is the

largest existing observatory in Asia (Fig. 7a). For

stone, alkali-feldspar granite (63%) was used for the

basement, the upper cylindrical body part, and a top

part of Cheomseongdae (Fig. 7b); micrographic

granite (27%) was used for the lower cylindrical body

part (Fig. 7c). However, since the two rock types have

similar mineralogical and geochemical

characteristics, they are considered to have been

generated from same granitic magma (Fig. 7d). It was

verified that these rocks originated from Mt. Nam at

the south of Cheomseongdae in which many ancient

quarrying traces are found.

Results of precise non-destructive diagnosis

indicate that structural problems such as cracks and

missing part occur mainly at the lower part of

Cheomseongdae, whereas the upper part was

damaged mostly by surface weathering such as

blistering, scaling, and granular disintegration (Fig.

7e). It was also determined that the surface was

mainly contaminated by darkening (37.3%) and

biological colonization (58.0%). In particular, the

darkening contaminants include microorganisms,

clay minerals, dust and micro soil particles, which

combined to form a thick layer that also led to

discoloration after iron-oxidizing substances

degraded from minerals, and consecutive applications

of plaster were added. Regarding physical properties

of rock used in Cheomseongdae, it was determined

through the ultrasonic velocity measurement that the

rocks were moderately weathered stage on average

(Jo et al., 2010).

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Figure 6: (a) Aerial photograph of the Mireuksaji Temple site in Iksan. (b) Western and eastern views of the

Mireuksaji stone pagoda before and after reconstruction in the 1910s. (c) A recent (1990s) view from the

northeastern side. (d) Steam cleaning to remove the surface contaminants. (e) Three-dimensional modeling to

apply restoration and conservation treatment of the stone pagoda. (f) Virtual assembling of the basement part

using three-dimensional simulation. (g) Three-dimensional model and restoration idea of the stone pagoda. (Lee

et al., 2009; NRICH, 2013).

Figure 7: (A) Field Occurrence of Cheomseongdae. Polarizing Microscope Images of Alkali-Feldspar Granite

(B) and Micrographic Granite (C). (D) X-Ray Diffraction Pattern and Magnetic Susceptibilities of Component

Stones. (E) Infrared Thermographic Image on the Blistering. (Jo Et Al., 2010).

Conservation Studies of Korean Stone Heritages

3.5 Dabo Pagoda and Three-story Stone

Pagoda of Bulguksa Temple (the 8

century)

Bulguksa Temple in Gyeongju was built in the 10th

year (751) of the reign of King Gyeongdeok of

Unified Silla Kingdom. The Dabo Pagoda (National

Treasure No. 20), representative of special pagodas,

is located at the fontal east of main Buddhist hall, and

the Three-story Stone Pagoda (National Treasure No.

21), representative of general pagodas, is at the west.

It is easily observed that the latter, with a height of

10.8 m, is a three-story pagoda established on two-

story basement, whereas the number of stories of the

Dabo Pagoda, with a height of 10.3 m, is un-

determined. Equigranular medium-grained alkali-

feldspar granite in which small druse is developed

was used in the two stone pagodas; rocks for other

parts are mixed (Lee et al., 2005).

In 1925, the Dabo Pagoda was comprehensively

deconstructed for repair, and its lower quadrangular

banister of the second story and upper part were

repaired in 1972. Nevertheless, due to inappropriate

drainage at the second-story banister, the first-story

support structure was damaged by weathering. Since

repair was urgently needed, the NRICH performed

conservation treatments in December 2008.

Specifically, after preliminary investigation including

the processes of three-dimensional scanning and

making a deterioration map of the stone pagoda, eight

members in poor condition were replaced by partially

disassembling the quadrangular banister of the

second story, octagonal banister, and upper part(Fig

8a, 8b).

Moreover, conservation treatments were

performed on crack and blistering parts, and by

removing concrete and cement mortar at joints and

performing cleaning, the conservation process was

completed in December 2009 (NRICH, 2011). Parts

of the Three-story Stone Pagoda damaged during an

attempted robbery case in 1966 were partially

repaired. In December 2010, crack 1.32 m length and

5 mm in maximum width were confirmed in the cover

stone on the northeastern upper basement through

regular safety inspection. As a result, deconstruction

and repair measures are being performed and are due

to be completed in 2014.

Figure 8: Field Occurrences and Deterioration Maps of the Dabo Pagoda (A) and the Three-Story Pagoda (B) in Bulguksa

Temple. (Lee, 2007).

3.6 Stone Standing Maitreya Statue of

the Gwanchoksa Temple in Nonsan

(estimated the 10

to 11

century)

At a height of approximately 18 m, the Stone

Standing Maitreya Statue of the Gwanchoksa Temple

(Treasure No. 218) is the largest stone statue of

Buddha in Korea (Fig. 9a). It is located on a slightly

inclined outcrop of granodiorite against a backdrop of

Mt. Banya (Fig. 9b). Overall, this Buddha’s feet are

carved in natural bedrock without a pedestal, whereas

the upper and lower body and both arms are

composed of large stones to establish a complete

statue. A cylindrical high crown appears on the head,

expressing baldachin that has the square Gat shape of

a traditional Korean hat. On the face, which is

comparatively larger than the body, the eyes, nose,

and mouth are adjusted to completely fill the entire

face, thus enabling the face to overcome a flat image

and have a strong impression. The Buddha’s linear

eyes appear very sharp; the pupils, composed of black

shale, realistically express the image of the stone

sculpture (Fig. 9c).

This standing stone Maitreya statue had been

physically weathered by blistering and scaling, and

secondary contaminants and deposits are scattered

around it (Fig. 9d). Moreover, a collapse risk of the

CESIT 2020 - International Conference on Culture Heritage, Education, Sustainable Tourism, and Innovation Technologies

host rock due to development of discontinuities is

present, and a high amount of crustose lichens covers

the statue; fungi, algae, and bryophytes are also

present (Yun et al., 2006). As such, to protect this

statue from contamination by lichens, blistering, and

cracks, conservation treatments were conducted in

2007 based on preliminary investigation with regard

to conservation science. Overall processes were

performed in the order of dry and wet cleaning,

joining of cracks, and reinforcement of missing parts

using replacement rock; maintenance of surrounding

environments was also conducted.

3.7 Five-story Stone Pagoda of the

Magoksa Temple in Gongju

(estimated the 13

century)

The Five-story Stone Pagoda of the Magoksa Temple

in Gongju (Treasure No. 799) is a representative

cultural heritage of the late Goryeo Dynasty and was

constructed under the influence of Lamaism (Fig.

10a). On the second-story body part of this pagoda,

the mystic Buddhas of the Four Directions are

embossed, whereas the upper part consists of a

Lamaistic-style Pungmadong, which is unique in that

it is found only at the existing White Pagoda of the

Miaoying Temple in Beijing, China, and at the

pagoda of the Magoksa Temple. This stone pagoda is

composed mainly of dark gray fine-grained quartz

diorite. The second-story body part and dew tray

consist of granodiorite, and the basement, which was

replaced during deconstruction and restoration works

in 1970, is composed of biotite granite (Fig. 10b). The

texture and color of biotite granite differ completely

from those of quartz diorite, which is the main rock

used, thereby leading to a sense of substantial

heterogeneity in appearance (Jo et al., 2012).

Figure 9: (a) Frontal view of the stone standing Maitreya statue of Gwanchoksa Temple in Nonsan. (b) Granodiorite composed

of quartz, plagioclase, microcline and biotite. (c) Slate consisting of pupil part. (d) Two-dimensional modeling using

ultrasonic velocity.

This stone pagoda is highly unstable due to a

comprehensively low gradual decrease rate and

because its northern part was substantially damaged

when the Daegwangbojeon Hall was set on fire in

1782. Thus, it has lost most of its original form. In

addition, constant deformation occurred even after

deconstruction and restoration of this pagoda in the

1970s, thus resulting in missing part, cracks,

blistering, and scaling of original rock and repair

materials, which could be easily observed by the

naked eye (Jo and Lee, 2014). Hence, precise safety

diagnosis including ground exploration and

behavioral monitoring was performed in 2006; dete-

rioration degree evaluation, three-dimensional

scanning and monitoring were done in 2008 (Fig.

10c); and infrared thermographic analysis and

investigation using an endoscope were conducted in

2012 (Fig. 10d). Based on the results, scientific

conservation treatments have been performed to

maintain the original form of this pagoda.

Conservation Studies of Korean Stone Heritages

Figure 10: (a) Current appearance of the Magoksa Temple stone pagoda. (b) Lithological map of the stone pagoda. (c)

Contour two-dimensional map by projecting the ultrasonic velocity of the stone pagoda. (d) Digital photographs and

thermographic images of representative blistering zones and blistering map of the stone pagoda. (Jo et al., 2012; Jo and Lee,

2014).

3.8 Seoul City Wall (after the 14

century)

The Seoul City Wall (Historic Site No. 10), at

approximately 18.1 km, was constructed to protect

Hanyang (now Seoul), the capital in the Joseon

Dynasty (Fig. 11a). Since the beginning of its

construction in the fifth year of King Taejo (1396)

(Fig. 11b), its original form has been well maintained

through extensive restoration measures performed

during the reigns of King Sejong (1397–1450) and

King Sukjong (1661–1720) (Fig. 11c). However,

when trams were introduced as a new transportation

mode during the Japanese colonial era, the city walls

were heavily damaged. Even after Korean

independence, rapid industrialization led to frequent

damage to the walls. Fortunately, after the 1970s, the

Seoul City Wall was gradually restored to its original

form as repairing project of the walls to promote

national pride. Furthermore, it has been recently listed

on the tentative UNESCO World Heritage List

(2012), achieving magnificent results.

Based on the results of previous studies, pinkish

granite (approximately 80%), leucocratic granite

(approximately 5%), gneiss (approximately 3%), and

dark red granite (approximately 2%) were mainly

used for constructing the Soul City Wall (Fig. 11d),

whereas small amounts of fine-grained granite and

aplite were also added (Lee et al., 2013). The various

material characteristics are closely related to

geological characteristics of the rocks adjacent to the

City Wall rather than other rocks intended for use by

the technician in charge of its construction. This

occurred because the City Wall reflects the political

intention of Joseon Dynasty, in which a large amount

of stone was required just after the national

foundation, unlike other heritages such as the Angkor

of Cambodia for which stone was supplied from a

long distance (Uchida and Shimoda, 2013).

In particular, these features are verified in that

rock properties of the early Joseon period was mainly

supplied from inner four mountains adjacent to the

City Wall, whereas a large amount of construction

stone was supplied from a fixed quarry outside the

City Wall after the middle Joseon period (Fig. 11e).

Thus, material authenticity of the Seoul City Wall can

be identified by examining the diversity of material

distribution and changes in provenacne according to

period and location. These criteria are also expected

to be applied as basic data for selecting the same rock

for future restoration (Lee et al., 2013).

CESIT 2020 - International Conference on Culture Heritage, Education, Sustainable Tourism, and Innovation Technologies

Figure 11: (a) General map of Seoul City Wall published by Seoul Metropolitan Government (2014). (b) Photograph of

Sungnyemun Gate and its vicinity in early 1904 (Photographer : George Rose; Collection of Cha Sang-sun, head of

Stereoscope). (c) Different techniques used to construct the wall during the reigns of King Sejong and King Sukjong. (d)

Pinkish granite used as the main rock material for Seoul City Wall. (e) Ancient quarrying trace found in places for provenance

investigation. (Lee et al., 2013).

3.9 Seokbinggo (Stone Ice Storage)

(the 18

century)

Seokbinggo is Stone Ice Storage to store ice collected

in winter to be used in summer. At present, a total of

six Seokbinggo structures, Treasure Nos. 66, 305,

310, 673, and 323 and Historical Site No. 169, are

located in Gyeongju, Andong, Changnyeong,

Hyeonpung, Cheongdo, and Yeongsan of South

Korea, respectively (Fig. 12a). All of these structures

were built in the late Joseon Dynasty and have been

maintained thus far. Seokbinggo can keep ice

collected in winter until summer because the selected

locations utilize the natural environment, and the

insulation design is effective. Thus, they are regarded

as a Korean heritage of integrated scientific technology.

For effective ice-storage, the Seokbinggo has an

arch structure in a semi-basement. Scientific design

and construction were applied by establishing

appropriate location environments, underground

space, installing vents, drains, and narrow entrances.

In particular, the arch structure transfers loads of the

upper part to the lower part to maintain durability and

maximize the internal capacity (Fig. 12b). For

efficiency of these structures, granite was selected as

the construction material (Fig. 12c). Thus, the

Seokbinggo structures are valuable cultural heritages

in that the applied scientific and technological

principles reflect the scientific excellence and

creativity of Korean ancestors (Fig. 12d).

Furthermore, it is anticipated that these techniques

can be applied in low-energy industries and can be

used to establish an eco-friendly conservational

environment system for cultural heritages (Kim and

Lee, 2013).

Conservation Studies of Korean Stone Heritages

Figure 12: (a) Locations of Seokbinggo in Korean peninsula. (b) Arched interior structure of the Gyeongju Seokbinggo. (c)

Polarizing microscopic image of alkali feldspar granite. (d) Schematic diagram of natural cooling effect of the Hyeonpung

Seokbinggo. (Kim and Lee, 2013).

4 CONCLUSION

In this study, dinosaur footprint fossils distributed in

the Cretaceous sedimentary rocks of the Mesozoic era

in Korea were introduced along with a brief

description of Korean stone heritages and

petroglyphs, and dolmens in the prehistoric age were

examined. Moreover, the Silla Stele in Bongpyeong-

ri and Cheomseongdae in Gyeongju of Silla Kingdom

during the period of the Three Kingdoms (BC 57 to

676) and the Five-story Stone Pagoda of the

Jeongnimsaji Temple Site, Rock-carved Triad

Buddha in Yonghyeon-ri, and Stone Pagoda in

Mireuksaji Temple Site of Baekje Kingdom (BC 18

to 666) were discussed.

For stone heritages of Unified Silla Kingdom (676

to 935), the Dabo Pagoda and Three-story Stone

Pagoda of the Bulguk Temple and the Five-Story

Stone Pagoda of the Seongjusaji Temple site were

presented. For stone heritages of the Goryeo Dynasty

(918 to 1392), the Rock-carved Buddha Statues of the

Namharisaji Temple Site, Stone Standing Maitreya

Statue of the Gwanchoksa Temple, and Five-Story

Stone Pagoda of the Magoksa Temple were

investigated. Finally, for the stone heritages of the

Joseon Dynasty (1392 to 1910), the Seoul City Wall,

Tombstone of Chungmugong Yi at the Chungryeolsa

Shrine and Seokbinggo were described.

Igneous rock accounts for the highest portion of

the rock used for establishing Korean stone heritages,

forming approximately 84% of state-designated

cultural properties. Categorization results according

to rock types indicate that granite was used most

often, 68.2% in 397 cases, followed by diorite, 8.2%

in 48 cases, and sandstone, granite gneiss, tuff, slate,

marble, and limestone at less than 4% each.

Examination of the stone heritages introduced in

this study indicates that clastic mud sedimentary rock

is used as a parent rock in dinosaur footprint fossils

and petroglyphs and that tuff, granite, and gneiss are

mainly used in dolmens. In addition, for the

Tombstone of Chungmugong Yi at the Chungryeolsa

Shrine, sandstone distributed near the area of its

placement was used.

On the contrary, despite different periods and

styles, granite was used in the Silla monument in

Bongpyeong, Cheomseongdae in Gyeongju, Five-

story Stone Pagoda of Jeongnimsaji Temple site,

Rock-carved Triad Buddha in Yonghyeon-ri, Stone

Pagoda in Mireuksaji Temple Site, Dabo Pagoda and

Three-story Stone Pagoda of the Bulguk Temple,

Five-story Stone Pagoda of the Seongjusaji Temple

site, Rock-carved Buddha Statues of the Namharisaji

Temple Site, Stone Standing Maitreya Statue of the

Gwanchoksa Temple, Five-Story Stone Pagoda of the

Magoksa Temple, the Seoul City Wall and

Seokbinggo. With regard to stone supply, rock

distributed in regions of each cultural heritage was

CESIT 2020 - International Conference on Culture Heritage, Education, Sustainable Tourism, and Innovation Technologies

used, whereas the petrological characteristics and

types of granite vary. In addition, in the Seoul City

Wall and Seokbinggo requiring a large amount of

rock, small amounts of metamorphic and sedimentary

rocks were also used.

It is generally known that the weathering and

damage degrees of stone heritages are strongly

affected by temperature and precipitation. Although

the average Korean temperature is 14°C, the

temperature increases to more than 35°C in summer

and decreases below -10°C owing to four distinct

seasons. The annual average precipitation of Korea is

nearly 1,300 mm, although it greatly differs according

to regions; rain events are generally concentrated in

summer. Lee and Chun (2013) reported the

distribution of stone heritages according to

topography and annual average temperature and

precipitation of Korea, indicating that most Korean

stone heritages are corresponded to areas of middle to

high weathering. Therefore, examination of

environmental control methods is required for

conservation considering the importance of stone

heritages exposed to the outside conditions, and

monitoring and management systems should be

established for stable conservation in the long term.

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