Metalinguistic Awareness and Individual Language Learners
in Foreign Language Learning
Ahmad Habibi Syahid
1
, Anita
1
, Mohamad Rohman
1
, Ida Nursida
1
, and Afif Suaidi
1
1
UIN Sultan Maulana Hasanuddin Banten, Indonesia
Keywords: Metalinguistic Awareness, Individual Language Learners, Personality, Foreign Language Learning
Abstract: Individual differences in language learning are an interesting object, as well as those found in foreign learning.
Individual differences defined as diverse characteristics and personalities. Metalinguistic awareness becomes an internal
factor in the process of second language acquisition and foreign language learning. It’s two perspectives as declarative aspect
and procedural aspect of metalinguistic awareness defining. Declarative aspect claimed that language as an object of thought
but emphasize the aspects of knowledge and awareness. Procedural aspect claimed that metalinguistic awareness is the
operations used in comprehension or production. Do the differences in individuals develop metalinguistic awareness in second
language acquisition and foreign language learning or metalinguistic awareness help individual differences in second
language acquisition and foreign language learning? Both questions or statements above become the formulation of the
problem in the article to answer about the role of metalinguistic awareness and individual differences in the process of foreign
language learning.
1 INTRODUCTION
Language is a means of delivering a product called a
message delivered by the speaker and received by the
listener or writer to the reader. So in language
learning, there are two items to learn: to learn a
system and to learn a skill. learn a system mean that
we have to learn grammar, and pronunciation and
learn a skill mean that we have to learn four skills in
language are listening skill, speaking skill, reading
skill, and writing skill. So what we have to do to learn
a system and learn a skill? Began with understanding,
use, and drill to learn a system and to learn a skill you
just have to practice it. It’s mean that language is what
you understand, use and practice it.
Language behavior is a social event that increases
as the human mindset in language. In Linguistic
studies also known an acquisition and language
learning. Both have different definitions but are
related to each other. the acquisition based on natural
situations and learning based on artificial and planned
situations. (Syahid, 2014)
Language is an accumulative process in obtaining
language that occurs on various levels. That makes it
capable of obtaining language learning goals. Among
the goals of language learning is to carry out different
levels of language activities. Various levels of
language learning interpreted by the levels one has to
go through when learning a language, both from the
cognitive, psychomotor, and affective domains.
(Albantani, 2018)
Skinner and Barlow said that learning is a
behavioral adaptation. Chomsky said that language
behavior based on indigenous skills, not behavior
adaptation. (Syahid, 2014) Debatable between both
theories based on the problem that language
(language ability) considered as 'tabula rasa' in the
view of behaviorism. So it takes stimulants to fill it.
Whereas in the view of nativism theory that language
is innate.
Syahid (Syahid, 2015) said in his research on
personality models in Arabic acquisition that
personality affects language acquisition and language
learning too. In his research also concluded that
personality models such as extroverts and introverts
have implications for the acquisition of the second
language. Both personalities affect increased
creativity and conclude that more extrovert or more
Syahid, A., Anita, ., Rohman, M., Nursida, I. and Suaidi, A.
Metalinguistic Awareness and Individual Language Learners in Foreign Language Learning.
DOI: 10.5220/0009431700410048
In Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on English Language Teaching, Linguistics and Literature (ELITE 2019) - Promoting Global Diversity, Partnership and Prosperity through
English Development, pages 41-48
ISBN: 978-989-758-459-6
Copyright
c
 2020 by SCITEPRESS – Science and Technology Publications, Lda. All rights reserved
41

introvert, easier to learn a language. In this paper,
both personalities like extrovert and introvert mean
individual differences in language learning. But
before the show about language learning, Skinner and
Barlow said that learning is a behavioral adaptation.
Chomsky said that language behavior based on
indigenous skills, not behavior adaptation. (Syahid,
2014) Debatable between both theories based on the
problem that language (language ability) considered
as 'tabula rasa' in the view of behaviorism. So it takes
stimulants to fill it. Whereas in the view of nativism
theory that language is innate.
Based on the discussion about acquisition and
language learning focused on foreign language, the
study of metalinguistic has attracted a lot of attention
from developmental psychologists, linguists, and
educators. (Pratt and Grieve, 1984) Metalinguistic
can be defined at the general level as a skill or ability
to think about and reflect the nature and function of
language. The definitions about the term
(metalinguistic awareness) feel difficult when
defining more specific. It seems complicated when
defining the term. While the definition of linguistic
awareness based on language use in daily
conversation or when writing something in the article.
The article will focus on metalinguistic awareness
and individual language learner in foreign language
learning. Based on the introduction above, this paper
discusses “Metalinguistic Awareness and Individual
Differences in Foreign Language Learning” with
descriptional analysis and neuro-psycholinguistic
perspective.
2 LITERATURE REVIEW
Metalinguistic ability is a consequence of developing
children's language skills or producing language
ability. Metalinguistic is often interpreted as exposure
awareness in language. This means that
metalinguistic has functions like how to achieve,
reciprocate, create ideas, knowledge of the structure
and the functions of the language and rules of
language in using it. (Tunmer and Herriman, 1984)
Hahn said that vocabulary learning is an important
to learn to realize second or foreign language
acquisition. He said that metalinguistic awareness is
the process between oral and written. the oral form
(speaking) means that language learner is able to
recognize the word when he speaks and be able to
express the meaning of the word in his speech. And
knowing the writing means that the language learner
is able to recognize words when he is reading and be
able to use the word when writing properly. (Hahn,
2009)
Research conducted by Schmidt who spoke about
“Attention, Awareness and Individual Differences”,
concluded that personality can influence language
acquisition both in the first or second languages. He
also said that this could happen in adulthood. As with
Julie, a Native Speaker of English. Julie who
immigrated at the age of 21, because of her marriage
to an Egyptian. In a review conducted by IOP,
Boustagui, El Tigi, and Moselle, that Julie is a unique
individual who acquires her second language
naturally which does not require formal instruction in
mastering Arabic language skills. At that time she
was only 26 years old. So only about 5 years, she
learned Arabic naturally. She also has good
pronunciation and excellent communicative abilities.
Schmidt explained that Julie noted what she had to do
to master Arabic (in this case) by looking at the needs
factor. (Schmidt, 2012)
Advantages of reflective style are more accurate
speaking, more accurate reading and think carefully.
Advantages of impulsive are more willing to speak in
class, faster reading, better in time test.
Disadvantages of reflective are wait too long to speak,
read more slowly and slower timed test.
Disadvantages of impulsive are less accurate in
speaking, less accurate in reading and act without
thinking enough. (Brown, 2001)
Metalinguistic awareness regard as a single ability.
The age which children very different to shows
metalinguistic awareness, and depends on factors or
studies such as knowledge that has been tested and
how far is needed for explicit matters. Researchers
tend to make claims from a study in general that
focuses on one aspect, its metalinguistic awareness.
In this section explain why there are variations in
metalinguistic awareness of children. In fact. that
metalinguistic awareness may be too general to be of
much empirical use - it might be more appropriate to
think of metalinguistic awareness as an area of
knowledge and research that focuses on certain types
of metalinguistic understanding. (Homer, 2000) It’s
like in Indonesia has an own language character
which consists of Indonesian as a national language
and regional language as the native language of each
region. Indonesian language cannot be said as a
mother tongue or the first language for the Indonesian
people, because almost Indonesian people have a
mother tongue which is their own regional language
like Sunda, Java. and the others use Indonesian as
their mother tongue.
Before a child can learn to use the label "word"
correctly, he must be aware of the word as a unit of
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language, larger than phonemes and smaller than
phrases, and syntactically distinct from bound
morphemes. Research into the development of the
"word unit" concept suggests generally that this
insight may not be easily attained. (Bowey and
Tunmer, 1984)
Bohn (1914), Snyder (1914), and Weir (1962)
suggests that several language acquisition studies
have reported that children appear to play with
language by trying out different sentence types, by
repeating newly acquired words, by repeating
sentence frames, substituting one word for another,
and so on. Word substitution play has been observed
by several researchers. (Bowey and Tunmer, 1984)
Differences in metalinguistic awareness also
appear in individuals with monolingual and bilingual.
Ellen (Bialystok, 1991) said that there are differences
between monolingual and bilingual children in
metalinguistic awareness. Bilingual children
certainly have advantages compared to monolingual
children. This is due to the two processes of language
acquisition. (Malakoff and Hakuta, 1991)
3 RESEARCH METHOD
This study is mainly intended to develop language
learning models, especially in foreign language
learning with individual differences factor. And it is
to develop foreign language ability for students until
they can speak well and get the foreign language
quickly. This paper use descriptional analysis to
describe the phenomenon of metalinguistic
awareness and individual language learners in foreign
language learning. The major question prepared as a
reference for the hypothesis thought in this study.
Therefore the major question in this paper is how
metalinguistic awareness and individual differences
impact to foreign language learning?
4 RESULT AND DISCUSSION
4.1 Metalinguistic Awareness on
Language Learning
Metalinguistic research, especially about
metalinguistic awareness for children, has attracted a
lot of attention, especially from psychologists and
educators. Pinter explained that foreign language
learning for students at the elementary level (young
language learners) has the purpose and purpose of one
of them is to develop metalinguistic awareness. (Pratt
and Grieve, 1984) At the age of children, the
development of metalinguistic awareness is
considered slow. At this age, the ability to think about
language as a system arises gradually. (Pratt and
Grieve, 1984)
Metalinguistic abilities also defined as explicit
awareness in language. This explicit awareness
includes how to achieve, reciprocate, create ideas,
knowledge of the structure and the functions of the
language and rules of language in using it. In the
development of metalinguistic abilities that have been
debating in long ago that the linguistic intuition based
on psychological processes and these processes have
been involving metalinguistic abilities. Both have a
difference both logically and psychologically in
understanding and producing language. (Tunmer and
Herriman, 1984) This meaning that metalinguistic
ability is a consequence of developing children's
language skills or producing language ability.
Schmitt suggests that metalinguistic awareness is
the process of language learning. Is it identical to the
process of acquisition or language learning? And in
the theory of language acquisition, vocabulary is very
important to learn. (Hahn, 2009) This paper claimed
that a word comes from two forms, oral and written.
Nation claimed that knowing the oral form (speaking)
means that language learner is able to recognize the
word when he speaks and be able to express the
meaning of the word in his speech. And knowing the
writing means that the language learner is able to
recognize words when he is reading and be able to use
the word when writing properly. (Hahn, 2009)
According to Ryan and Ledger, metalinguistic
developments involve the gradual shift of attention
from meaning to structure in tasks that require
deliberate control over forms of language. It’s mean
that someone in the age of children will learn his
language by acquiring the language. An important
feature of the beginning of linguistic awareness seems
to be the flexibility of the strategy — the ability to
decide, to shift one's focus from the most prominent
message attributes (meaning and contextual settings)
to the structure (vehicles that are usually transparent
to which meaning is conveyed). (Birdsong, 1989)
Starting from an early age, most children are part
of a competent linguistic community. Even under the
age of one can produce two simple words and
understand more complex sentences. Although this
initial competence shows an understanding of
language, which is an implicit understanding. While
an explicit understanding of language as language, or
metalinguistic awareness, is not found in children
until they grow up - usually around 6 to 8 years.
(Homer, 2000)
Metalinguistic Awareness and Individual Language Learners in Foreign Language Learning
43

Thomas said that the study of metalinguistic
awareness and language learning have a relationship.
The relationship between metalinguistic awareness
and language learning is the development of
multilingualism studies. He also said the study of
metalinguistic awareness was related to student's
choice of language learning strategies. (Thomas,
1992)
Thomas also explained that metalinguistic
awareness is referred to the ability of individuals to
see language with a focus as an object in itself, to
reflect the language, and to evaluate it. (Thomas,
1992)
Chaney said when the children were three years
old, their language development just as strong or
more strongly than seven years old and it correlated
with their reading scores. He claimed when the
children were three years old, metalinguistic skills
and awareness made significant contributions to read
something outside of what made by tacit language
development. (Chaney, 1998)
Research studied by Cromdal concluded that
metalinguistic skills were more easily applied in
weaker language subject. He said that several
scholars claimed that bilingualism may enhance
development linguistic awareness. Bilingualism is
commonly found in tasks that require high control in
processing and acquiring linguistic. This replicates
the previous findings. (Cromdal, 1999)
4.2 Individual Differences in Language
Learning
We know that individual differences. It’s mean that
language ability development differences. Because
acquiring and learning language form differences till
the language ability differences too. According to
Gleitman et al. study, metalinguistic sophistication
that children have is often surprising. 5
th
years old
appear as little mediators in the form of language, in
one case, you might want to say the word "X" but you
say the word "Y" long before you get grammar
training in a formal institution While evaluations are
carried out on their own and in fact, the words
corrected by others are considered normal or common.
and we also find children who are unable to make
corrections to deviant words or sentences. (Birdsong,
1989)
Individual differences in language learning means
individual language learner. Individual differences or
invidual language learners also show differences in
learning strategies and learning styles. This will be
explained below.
4.2.1 Learner Strategies
Researchers in 1970 explored the techniques of
collecting data from students to enable a good profile
of language learner behavior to be identified, and then
may be used as a basis for training less effective
students. Naiman, Frohlich, Stern, and Todesco
(1978) used a semi-structured interview technique to
encourage highly successful students to reflect on
what they gained in the previous learning process. In
this case, there are five general strategies that they
identify: (1) active duty approach; (2) knowing the
language kind of system; (3) knowing the language is
using for communicating each other; (4) ability to
deal with an affective problem in language learning;
and (5) ability to see self-progress.
the researchers (eg, Rubin, 1981) propose a
related strategies list of learning, in Rubin's case the
emphasis is on the learning process, including
deduction, practice, concluding, and so on. Rubin
(1981) said that there are differences in language
between direct and non-compliant strategies. As for
one example of the wake-up strategy like concluding.
and most importantly in terms of preparing students
to be able to develop learning experiences in a more
effective direction later such as doing field experience.
During the 1980s, strategies continued to be
worked out but changed character. Politzer and
McGroarty (1985) made a questionnaire designed to
assess how many students used a particular strategy
this was based on previous research strategies.
Strategies carried out by students such as those
carried out in the classroom, independent learning
and the interaction process carried out in the learning
process. In this case, they found very little relation
between questionnaire-based learning and the results
of subsequent language learning. This
"incompatibility" basically requires an assessment
from another group of students. this can indicate that
describing the results of previous strategy research
with questionnaires is not an easy matter. O'Malley,
Chamot, Stewner-Manzares, Kupper, and Russo
(1985a), used a less structured data collection
technique in conducting interviews with a group of
students in ESL secondary schools which were
considered the most effective techniques. the results
they get from their studies are many strategies than
they expected. O'Malley et al. (1985a) said the
strategies obtained from the results of their studies
into three main categories namely metacognitive,
cognitive, and social. O'Malley et al. find that
common strategy is a strategy that only requires
shallow material processing, such as recurrence;
while the strategies of inference and elaboration
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which are considered by them to be more demanding,
are rarely used. O'Malley, Chamot, Stewner-
Manzares, Kupper, and Russo (1985b) also observe
skills training strategies and make reports on the
benefits of short-term training.
4.2.2 Styles of Learner
Rebecca L. Oxford said that learning style or learner
style is an all about pattern that develop and create
broad direction to learning. Learning style make the
same instructional method which one beloved by
some students and hated by others. (Oxford, 2003)
Of course differences in learner style are also
influenced by individual differences. Each individual
must have a different style, even with the same
individual. Two extroverted people may have the
same personality but have different ways and styles
of learning. It may be that among us are individuals
with high concentration but weak in expressing
something. on the contrary, it may also be that we are
individuals with weak concentration but are very
good at expressing something. (Oxford, 2003)
Language learning style is a general approach to
language learning, while strategy is the specific
behavior chosen by students in learning and using
their language. So, differences in style will include
visual, auditory, or hands-on; become more abstract
and intuitive. (Cohen, 2003)
The concept of learning styles does not suggest
attention to individual variables or is limited, but
rather a general, voluntary or not tendency towards
processing information in a certain way. Until now,
the emphasis in learning style research was only on
the differences between the field (FD) and
independent field students (FI). Although the
discussion of FD-FI differences shows that each
extreme has advantages (FD students are more
people-oriented, and must do better with interaction-
based learning; FI students are more analytical and
object-oriented, and learning is more effective when
faced with material body to be assimilated), most
actual studies have found results that support FI
learning. Several researchers report relationships
around the 0.30 level. However, this finding must
meet the requirements because, when intelligence
effects are partly from the correlation in question (IQ
being an established correlation of field
independence), relationships are reduced to only
marginal significance. (Hansen, 1984; Hansen &
Stansfield, 1981).
Recently, Spolsky said (1989) the study of
learning styles has surpassed simple Fl-FD
differences. Reid (1987) collected data on perceptual
learning styles which showed that many students had
different preferences for auditory, visual, or presented
kinesthetic material. Willing (1987) concludes in his
research that active combinations depend on
empirical experiences that are associated with
concrete learning styles. while students who are
passive in the learning experience are characterized
by an authoritative orientation. he uses two
dimensions in conducting this research to describe
learning styles. the first is a dependency on the field
and the second with active-passive dimensions. by
combining these two dimensions, he determines four
quadrants. he also said that active students are
oriented towards communicative learning and passive
students are considered to have analytic and separate
learning styles. The four different types of students
each contributed 40%, 10%, 10%, and 30% of the
Willing student population in the Australian Migrant
Education Service. Willing uses questionnaire-based
data and factor analysis techniques to identify these
types of students. Assuming the validity of this
procedure, the items that determine the scale that
characterizes different learning styles imply different
class orientations and activity preferences for various
types of students. What Willing is doing is identifying
possible types of learners based on information
processing modes and class responses. Further
research is needed to determine what the
consequences will be when students of various types
are placed in well-organized classrooms and students
who are placed in classrooms that are not right or
well-organized. Some links allow you to explore
learning styles. Aptitude research has suggested that
there may be types of analytic students and memory
dependent (with a perception type one third,
relatively unexplored possibilities), with these types
characterized by the performance of the talent score
and with both types being a feasible route to success.
Student style research is much based on opposition to
field independence (with active vs. passive
dimensions of Willing, following Kolb [1976],
becoming more of a personality trait).
Metalinguistic Awareness and Individual Language Learners in Foreign Language Learning
45

A. Language Task
Authentic ↔ Inauthentic
Relevant ↔ Irrelevant
Motivating ↔ non-Motivating
Appropriate level ↔ Inappropriate level
Useful ↔ not Useful
Clear Task ↔ Unclear Task
Familiar ↔ Unfamiliar
Easy Language ↔ Difficult Language
Teacher-initiated ↔ Student-initiated
Concrete ↔ Abstract
Opened ↔ Closed
Independent ↔ Cooperative
Timed ↔ Free
B. Learner’s Style Preferences
Visual ↔ Auditory ↔ Hands-on
Abstract-intuitive ↔ Concrete-sequential
Global ↔ Particular
Synthesizing ↔ Analyzing
Impulsive ↔ Reflective
Open ↔ Closure
Extroverted ↔ Introverted
C. Learner’s Strategies for Dealing with The
Task
Figure 1: The Interaction of Style, Strategy and Task
(Cohen, 2003)
4.3 Metalinguistic Awareness and
Individual Differences Impact on
Foreign Langauge Learning
Metalinguistic performance is seen as somewhat
narrower in linguistics because it is most often
understood in response to the subject of experimental
tasks such as paraphrasing speech or judging the
synonymity of two sentences. The performance of
prototypical metalinguistic in linguistics is the
rendering of grammar judgments of sentences or
acceptance. (Birdsong, 1989) Kellerman (1983) says
that metalinguistic performance can reflect intuitive
and implicit knowledge too. For example, Dutch
English students have been found to consider
sentences that do not fit grammar as John is easy to
convince and the cup broke. They reject these
sentences even though they never receive explicit
instructions about sentences like them and, strangely,
even though there are matching words in their mother
tongue. (Birdsong, 1989: 2-3)
during the early phases of linguistic and cognitive
development in children, metalinguistic abilities
appear quite a lot. According to Clark (1978),
children at the age of two years can correct speech by
themselves spontaneously, word form, and word
order; they ask about word choice, pronunciation, and
proper speech; they comment on other people's
speeches; they pay attention to linguistic structures
and functions (meaning, suitability, politeness,
grammar, etc.); and they ask about language. When
children develop cognitively and linguistically, their
metalinguistic abilities can be increased and
expanded. (Birdsong, 1989: 15) This is what the
researcher see when her daughter conveys one thing
but she paused at the moment because what she
explained was not so understood and she repeated it
again by trying to assemble the correct sentence. Even
she did not understand well the true or false sentences.
Observations made by the researchers to the two
sisters, Mehr and Mahira. Mehr and Mahira are sisters
who have different learning styles. In the
observations, Mehr tends to be impulsive and Mahira
reflective. Impulsive is someone who likes to do
things quickly or spontaneously and reflective
otherwise requires time to think before doing
something. Advantages of reflective style are more
accurate speaking, more accurate reading and think
carefully. Advantages of impulsive are more willing
to speak in class, faster reading, better in time test.
Disadvantages of reflective are wait too long to speak,
read more slowly and slower timed test.
Disadvantages of impulsive are less accurate in
speaking, less accurate in reading and act without
thinking enough. (Brown, 2001)
an Explanation of the individual differences that
are reflected in the reflective and impulsive
personality in the learning process, it appears that
Mehr responds to something spontaneously and
quickly, and does not think about whether the
response is expected or not, but Mehr enjoyed it and
didn't bother too much whether her response to
something was right or wrong. When reading it may
be that Mehr ignores some difficult words and
guesses roughly what they mean and will continue
reading the text, but is often good at guessing those
words.
In contrast to Mehr, Mahira tends to be quieter.
He also prefers to think before making a decision or
responding to something. As if he needs to make sure
that her decision, her opinion, the answer is correct.
Mahira will think for a while to conclude, including
reading. She needs more time. But the result she will
get more information and tend to be precise.
One time both of them had the opportunity to visit
abroad for ten days, something unexpected happened.
Mahira, who usually does not keep quiet, seems to
communicate more with strangers. Though it is very
rare for him to speak or practice English while at
home. Abroad, Mahira seems to enjoy and fluently
speak and explore information from native speakers.
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The English language is also neatly structured with
accurate pronunciation. On the other hand, the usually
spontaneous Mehr was seen several times hesitant to
talk to strangers. Mehr was worried that the language
she used was not well organized. This makes it
difficult to find ideas or ideas to talk about. Though
usually, Mehr is spontaneous in speaking, fluent in
expressing her heart and opinion. It is precisely
Mahira who tends to be quiet and be a good listener.
If seen from the achievements in elementary
school, both have achievements that are not much
different. Both have experienced entering the top
three and the top ten. However, in daily life, Mehr
prefers to tell stories and share jokes with family
members to make family members laugh. While
Mahira will listen and tend to be quiet and not talk
much but likes to read.
The description above is a description of
individual differences that affect the way of learning
a foreign language (in this case English) and
expressing language. As explained in the sub-
literature review about Julie. She obtained her second
language even in a very natural way and only lasted 5
years from the first age she learned her second
language. In the conclusion that Julie is a naturalistic
learner / person who learn tha second language it’s
mean foreign language for her without formal
situation. Julie is a unique individual who acquires
her second language naturally which does not require
formal instruction in mastering Arabic language skills.
At that time she was only 26 years old. So only about
5 years, she learned Arabic naturally. She also has
good pronunciation and excellent communicative
abilities. Schmidt explained that Julie noted what she
had to do to master Arabic (in this case) by looking at
the needs factor. (Schmidt, 2012)
5 CONCLUSION
According to the discussion above that metalinguistic
awareness and individual differences it’s mean
individual language learner have a role in the growth
of language skills in children and it’s impact on
foreign language learning. There are two individual
in this research that have been an object on this paper,
reflective and impulsive. Impulsive is someone who
likes to do things quickly or spontaneously and
reflective otherwise requires time to think before
doing something. But in some case that reflective is
quieter and impulsive is quickly but some times that
reflective more quieter than impulsive and impulsive
more quicker than reflective. Therefore basically
every individual has different potential and different
ways to learn a foreign language.
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