Prejudice towards Host Culture and Acculturative Stress:

Studies on Internal Migrants in Indonesia

Nugraha Arif Karyanta

1 2

and M. G. Bagus Ani Putra

Faculty of Psychology, Universitas Airlangga, Surabaya, Indonesia

Department of Psychology, Faculty of Medicine, Universitas Sebelas Maret, Surakarta, Indonesia

Keywords: acculturative stress, prejudice, language proficiency, gender

Abstract: Many researchers on prejudice have focused on minority ethnic students at the receiving end of prejudice by

the host cultures. This study focuses on the prejudice of minority ethnic students towards the host culture

and its contribution to acculturative stress. It also attempts to analyse the influence of perceived language

proficiency (c.q. Javanese language) and gender on acculturative stress. Participants comprised 69

undergraduate students studying in a state university and coming from various ethnicities other than

Javanese that was considered the host culture in Surakarta. Results indicated that prejudice to the host

cultures was a predictor of acculturative stress. Meanwhile, perceived language proficiency and gender

didn’t have significant effect on acculturative stress. Implications, limitations and future research direction

are discussed.

1 INTRODUCTION

Indonesia is a populous country with tremendous

tribe diversity. Pusat Data dan Statistik Pendidikan

dan Kebudayaan/PDSPK (Center of Data and

Statistics of Education and Culture) Ministry of

Education and Culture of Republic of Indonesia

(2016) stated there were at least 250 ethnic groups in

Indonesia. Despite already having some areas as

their basis, tribe members travelled across the

country for many reasons, such as gaining access to

better or higher education. Movement within the

country is usually referred to as internal migration.

Sukamdi and Mujahid (2015) in a monograph series

of the United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA)

about internal migration defined internal migration

as “..the movement of population nation-state..”. The

number of internal migrants in Indonesia increased

significantly, reaching 9,800,000 citizens in 2010.

This number outstripped the number of international

migrants which was estimated at 4,579,903, and

most of those migrants were 15 – 34 year old

individuals. According to Sunarto (1984), this was

due to the difficulties in enrolling in universities and

transportation infrastructure improvements.

Moreover, Java is the most attractive island for

internal migrants (Sukamdi and Mujahid, 2015).

As with any other migrant group, migrant

students also face difficulties in adjusting to the

surrounding neighbourhood, culture and conditions

in their new residence. Various researches showed

that adjusting to new places is a form of significant

stress (Holmes and Rahe, 1967; Vingerhoets, 2005)

influencing physical and mental health, causing

diabetes mellitus as well as other immune-affecting

diseases after the movement (Van Tilburg,

Vingerhoets and Van Heck, 1996). Kleiner and

Parker (1963) found that born-and-raised American

inhabitants migrating across the United States

showed symptoms of psycho-neurotic and neurotic

disorder (cited from Fisher, 2005). Migrant students

must not only deal with academic tasks more

difficult than those of the previous education level,

but also adjust to a new environment and different

culture unlike their previous origin. New

environments and cultural differences experienced

by migrant students potentially cause acculturative

stress, which is stress as an impact of undergoing an

acculturation process (Berry, 1997; Yeh and Inose,

2003; Schwartz and Zamboanga, 2008).

Students experiencing acculturative stress

encounter various consequences. Berry, Kim, Minde

and Mok (1987) emphasized that the stress led to

decreasing physical, psychological and social

well-being. Johnson and Sandhu (2007) suggested

294

Karyanta, N. and Putra, M.

Prejudice towards Host Culture and Acculturative Stress: Studies on Internal Migrants in Indonesia.

DOI: 10.5220/0008588502940302

In Proceedings of the 3rd Inter national Conference on Psychology in Health, Educational, Social, and Organizational Settings (ICP-HESOS 2018) - Improving Mental Health and Harmony in

Global Community, pages 294-302

ISBN: 978-989-758-435-0



that consequences of acculturative stress included

the feeling of missing accustomed behaviors or

having to change ways of doing things, routines,

habits, and altering close relationships. In some

students, acculturative stress affected their academic

performance. For example, Albeg (2014) concluded

that acculturative stress correlated negatively with

students’ academic performance; also Lee (2016)

and other researches associated acculturative stress

with GPA. In academic circumstances, acculturative

stress not only affected students’ GPA but also led to

students’ drop out (Castro, 2010). Aside from

recognizing difficulties students face related to

acculturative stress, identifying factors influencing

those difficulties may also help students overcome

them (Charles-Toussaint and Crowson, 2010).

Theoretically, in his meta-analysis, Kuo (2014)

mentioned that researches on acculturation process

and coping strategies used – including acculturative

stress – were based on international migration, hence

on what level theories from international migration

can be used to explain acculturation process for

internal migration was uncertain, and those studies

require more attention to fill the existing literature

gaps.

Cultural differences and consequences following

the acculturation process don’t necessarily happen in

different countries, but also happen in the same

region, even in the same ethnicity. For instance, such

situation was mentioned in the study by Wu and

Mak (2012) upon acculturative stress in non-local

students from mainland China in Hong Kong, or in

the study of Benita (2016) on acculturative stress in

rural students studying in urban areas. This current

research focuses on acculturative stress in

non-Javanese students continuing their study in

Surakarta as the center of Javanese culture, and

referring to Wu and Mak (2012) this study uses the

term non-local students as such acculturation

process occurs among citizens with the same

nationality.

Numerous literatures show prejudice as a

significant determinant of acculturative stress

(Fernandez, 2016; Torres, Driscoll and Voel, 2012;

Ahmed, Keating and Tsai, 2011), which then grows

into discrimination. Allport (1954; in Brown, 2010)

defined ethnic prejudice as an antipathy based on

false or inflexible generalization. Prejudice leads

individuals to choose certain facts and neglect

others, causing one to see all group members as

alike. Due to the emotional quality that prejudice

has, attitudes towards the prejudice itself tend to last

(Simpson and Yinger, 1985). Most prejudice will be

addressed to minorities, though it can also be

addressed from minorities to majorities.

Most studies on prejudice in international

students saw non-local students as the target of

prejudice from host-cultures (Pu, 1994; Corey,

2000). This is due to the situation where non-local

students are more prone to prejudices, making them

experience difficulties in adjustment, feel

stressed-out, isolated, and other psychosocial

obstacles. Discrimination, prejudice and

stereotyping may be overwhelming, especially to

students who were raised in homogenous society

(Constantine, et al., 2005; Eustace, 2007).

On the other hand, it is highly possible for

non-local students to hold prejudice towards

host-cultures. In general, obstacles that non-local

students confront in an acculturation context are

related to the adjustment process, and Verkuyten

(1996) discovered that difficulties in adjustment lead

to prejudice. In certain perspectives, prejudice has a

function towards an individual’s personality, such as

how it plays a role in maintaining an individual’s

self-esteem (Verkuyten, 1996).

Inter-group Threat Theory (ITT) is another

theoretical perspective can be used to explain

prejudice from minority group to dominant group

(Riek, 2006; Fernandez, 2016). Stephan and Stephan

(2000) classified 4 types of inter-group threats:

realistic threat, symbolic threat, inter-group anxiety,

and negative stereotype. Realistic threat is related to

perception of competition, colliding purposes

between parties, and threats to physical and

economic well-being. Symbolic threat involves

threat coming from conflicts of value, norms and

beliefs. Inter-group anxiety refers to the feeling of

stress and discomfort in the presence of people from

other groups, and a sense of uncertainty of how to

respond, making interaction such a terrifying thing

to conduct. Negative stereotype creates threat

because it puts negative expectation upon behaviors

of members from other groups.

Dovidio, Hewstone, Glick and Esses (2010)

implied that most prejudices were reactive,

reflecting anticipation of being treated with

discrimination by members of the majority group.

Prejudice, however, is a phenomenon occurring at an

individual level. Thus, members of minority groups

can also hold prejudice towards members of

majority groups. Fernandez (2016) found

acculturative stress to be correlated with prejudice

towards a host culture. In the internal migrants

context, the question would be, does this prejudice

towards a host culture also play a role in influencing

acculturative stress in non-local students from

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outside Java? As a country, Indonesia has “Bhinneka

Tunggal Ika” as its slogan, meaning unity in

diversity. At what level prejudice would influence

acculturative stress, considering shared value as

citizens of the same country despite ethnic or racial

differences, is yet to be answered in studies about

acculturative stress.

Individuals being the victims of prejudice may

drown in depression or withdrawal, while others

may get stuck in the prejudiced stereotype. Sinclair

and Kunda (1999) mentioned that prejudice could

lead individuals to have low self-esteem or other

mental problems. Asamen and Berry (1987)

examined the influence of prejudice accepted by

Asian students from a majority group and its

influence on self-concept. This research showed that

students who perceived stronger prejudice felt

loneliness, social isolation, helplessness and poor

self-concept. Pu (1994) discovered that perception of

prejudice created obstacles in minority individuals to

acculturate with dominant society. Dominant groups

tended to attribute negative stereotypes to minority

groups, while minority groups would also develop

negative perceptions of dominant groups.

Redfield, Lincoln and Herskovits (1936) defined

acculturation as a phenomenon resulting when

groups of individuals having different cultures came

into direct contact, causing changes in original

cultural patterns of either or both groups. Mena,

Padilla and Maldonado (1987) discovered

acculturation as the process of cultural adaptation

which leads individuals through some conditional

changes to adjust to local cultural norms. This

process occurs as a result of interactions between

two or more autonomous culture groups. In addition

to group level phenomena, Graves (1967) mentioned

the term psychological acculturation as changes in

individual psychology resulted from the

acculturation process. Psychological acculturation

refers to internal processes and psychological

changes occurring as a result of the individual

acculturation process (Berry, 1997), and may occur

in six areas: language, cognitive style, personality,

identity, attitude and acculturative stress.

Schwartz and Zamboanga (2008) defined

acculturative stress as a negative side effect of

acculturation, which occurs when acculturation

experience causes problems to the individual (Berry,

2003). As a consequence of experienced stress,

physical, psychological and social health of an

individual deteriorates (Berry, Kim, Minde and

Mok, 1987). Johnson and Sandhu (2007) found that

consequences of acculturation process included

feeling of losing some accustomed behaviors or

having to change ways of doing things, routines,

habits, and altering close relationships. Gil, Vega

and Dimas (1994) stated that acculturative stress

could come from incongruity among cultural values

and practices, language difficulties and

discrimination. For international students from

China, Bai (2012) found that sources of

acculturative stress were academic pressure,

language difficulties, inferior feeling, difficulties in

adjusting to new food or cultural values, lack of

support, feeling of being discriminated against and

homesickness (Sandhu and Asrabadhi, 1994; Yeh

and Inose, 2003).

Other than prejudice, language is also an obstacle

for international students in an acculturation process

(Sandhu and Asrabadhi, 1994; Bernal, 2014;

Schimdt, 2017). Language difficulties related to

language mastery in common include varying

dialects, pronunciation, and different meaning

applied to certain words. Yeh and Inose (2003)

suggested that language difficulties international

students had would influence academic

performance, and furthermore their psychological

adjustment. Difficulties in language mastery also

prevent non-local students from interacting properly

with fellow students or society. The situation in

Indonesia is unique regarding this language barrier,

since local language is intensely used in daily

conversation, making it difficult for non-Javanese

students to adjust. On the other hand, there is Bahasa

Indonesia as lingua franca that almost every citizen

masters. However, communication difficulties are

still reported to be one of the obstacles in the

acculturation process of non-local students

(Rundenganm, 2013; Utami, Wisadiran and

Nasution, 2014; Lagu, 2016; Miagoni, 2015).

A certain demographic condition influencing

acculturative stress is gender. Gender-related

behavior referrs to characteristics according to the

notion of men and women in every culture (Unger,

1979), and O’Neill (1990) found that gender roles

were determined by cultural conception of feminine

and masculine. Several studies showed that women

were more prone to acculturative stress than men

(Mahmood, 2014; Sirin, Ryce, Gupta and Sirin,

2013). Nevertheless, some studies showed that there

was no correlation between gender and acculturative

stress (Manning, 2004). A few studies concluded

that compared to teenage boys, teenage girls

reported more symptoms related to internalization,

depression, anxiety, somatization, and withdrawal

(Sirin, et al., 2013). Gender concept may differ from

one culture to another, giving it possible differences

in experienced acculturative stress, as well as

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changes in gender concept. This research also

observed whether gender had any influence on

acculturative stress experienced by non-local

students as internal migrants.

2 METHOD

2.1 Participants

Participants in this research were 69 non-local

students of Universitas Sebelas Maret Surakarta

(UNS) chosen by purposive sampling, with

following criteria:

1. Students of Universitas Sebelas Maret Surakarta

(UNS).

2. Migrants in Surakarta and surrounding areas.

3. Originally from outside Java Island.

4. Do not identify themselves as Javanese or use

Bahasa Java as mother tongue.

Initially there were 101 respondents completing

the uploaded questionnaire, but after inclusion and

exclusion process, only 69 respondents were

qualified for this research.

2.2 Procedures

The research team provided an on-line questionnaire

and distributed the link to students groups of every

faculty in UNS. All of the survey results offered

complete data, but some were not suitable for the

use of this research, since inclusion and exclusion

criteria as research respondents were not met. It took

around 20 - 30 minutes for respondents to complete

all items in the questionnaire.

2.3 Measures

For measurement in this research, the predictor

variables were prejudice, fluency in speaking Bahasa

Java, and gender. And the criterion variable was

acculturative stress.

2.3.2 Acculturative Stress

In measuring acculturative stress, this research used

the adaptation of Acculturative Stress Scale for

International Students/ASSIS (Sandhu and

Asrabadhi, 1994), consisting of 36 items with 5

answer options. This scale was adapted by analyzing

ASSIS’ construct, also by using forward translation

and back translation. Alpha cronbach coefficient for

this instrument was 0.916.

2.3.2 Prejudice

Prejudice was measured by adapting items referring

to the research conducted by Fernandez (2016). This

instrument consisted of 12 items with 5 answer

options, and the Alpha cronbach coefficient was

0.757.

2.2.4 Fluency in Speaking Bahasa Java

In order to measure fluency of speaking Bahasa

Java, respondents completed a self-reported

questionnaire. Method and questionnaire used for

this measure referred to the research of Yeh and

Inose (2003). There were 3 items used to measure

fluency of speaking Bahasa Java as daily local

language in Surakarta:

1. How fluent are you in speaking Bahasa Java?

2. How comfortable do you feel in using Bahasa

Java to communicate?

3. How often do you communicate in Bahasa Java?

Participants were given a Likert type scale with 5

answer options. Alpha cronbach coefficient of this

questionnaire was 0.753.

3 RESULT

Table 1: Descriptive Data of Research Participants.

Total Percentage

Gender Men 22 32

Women 47 68

Age 18 – 21 58 84

> 21 11 16

Duration of living

in Java

< 1 years 17 25

1 – 2

years

16 23

2 – 4

years

29 42

> 4 years 7 10

Research participants were 69 non-local students

with more women (68%) than men (32%)

participants. The age of participants ranged from 18

to 23 years old, with 84% under 21 years old and

others (16%) 21 - 23 years old. From the duration of

living in Java, participants were divided into 4

categories: those living in Java for less than a year

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(25%), 1 - 2 years (23%), 2 - 4 years (42%), and

more than 4 years (10%). Participants came from

diverse ethnic groups, from Papua, the farthest from

Java, to Batak, Melayu, Bugis, Sasak, Minang, and

so on. Some didn’t identify their ethnic group, some

wrote island name instead of ethnic group, and some

others wrote as mixed ethnic group (e.g.

Minang-Batak).

Table 2: Correlation, mean, and standard deviation for

each variable.

1 2 3 4

1. Accul. Stres

- .484 -.276

2. Prejudice

- -.302

3. Language

4. Gender

2.307 2.249 2.068

.559 .385 .687

Table 3: Summary of regression analysis for variable

predicting acculturative stress (N=69). Note: Language =

language fluency; F (3) = 8.65, P < 0.001; Total R

= .252.

Sig. B SE B β t

Gender .091 -.226 .132 -.190

-1.71

Prejudice .000 .641 .159 .443

4.02

Language .493 -.065 .094 -.080 -.690

Table 2 shows correlation, mean, and standard

deviation of each variable, and Table 3 is the

summary of regression analysis for variable

predicting acculturative stress. In this research,

regression analysis was conducted by using

prejudice, language and gender as predictor

variables and acculturative stress as criterion

variable. Overall regression model was significant

with F (3) = 8.65, p < 0.001 and explained 25.2% of

acculturative stress variant. In this model prejudice

explained 44.3% variant of acculturative stress.

Prejudice was the significant predictor of

acculturative stress (P < 0.001), while language and

gender were not the significant predictors of

acculturative stress.

4 DISCUSSION

This research sought to observe the influence of

prejudice, fluency of speaking Bahasa Java, and

gender as predictors of acculturative stress in

non-local students living and studying in Surakarta,

which is one of the centers of Java. Prejudice was

proven to be the strong predictor of acculturative

stress, while fluency of speaking Bahasa Java and

gender were not.

The main finding of this research was that

prejudice towards host culture, which was the

majority group, was proven to influence

acculturative stress experienced by non-local

students. In other words, as prejudice towards host

culture increased, acculturative stress did too. This

result was in accordance with the research by

Fernandez (2016) and Zick, Ulrich, Van Dick and

Petzel (2001). Prejudice towards host culture seemed

to have a certain function in maintaining students’

self-esteem, as a reaction to perception of

experienced prejudice from a host culture

(Branscombe and Wann, 1994; Riek, Mania and

Gaertner, 2006).

In this psychological situation, non-local students

would be more resistant to acculturative stress,

due

to the belief that such negative perception would

last despite their ability to mingle with the dominant

culture (Padilla & Perez, 2003). Individuals trapped

in that stigma would become more aware of

information about negative reaction or evaluation

from other people which led to prejudice and

discrimination (Crocker, et al., 1991). In order to

protect themselves from the impact of rejection from

a dominant culture, they would identify themselves

with a stronger ethnic background, making them

more sensitive to prejudice and discrimination from

a dominant culture (Nguyen, Messe and Stollak,

1999).

Physical characteristics, language, values, as well

as different habits would easily trigger prejudice

from a host culture towards minority groups (Brown,

2010). Different forms of prejudice would then grow

into discriminative actions. For instance, distinct

psychical appearance of students from Papua

triggered discriminative actions towards them, such

as having difficulties finding a dormitory, being

declined to rent a motorbike, feeling underestimated,

being laughed at, being hindered in academic life as

well as identification card or driving license

administration, and given higher prices when

shopping (Hasan, 2016; Ransun, 2016; Putranto,

2017). Even so, the dynamics of prejudice towards

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host culture causing acculturative stress demands

different explanation.

Explanation from Inter-group Threat Theory

(Stephan and Stephan, 2000; Stephan, Stephan and

Gudykunst, 1999; Stephan, Diaz-Loving and Duran,

2000) provided perspective triggering threat as a

source of prejudice, which then caused acculturative

stress. From a realistic threat point of view,

discrimination experienced by non-local students

was potentially disrupting their physical, mental and

social well-being. Symbolic threat in the form of

value differences may put pressure on individuals,

for example some expressive behavior of the

non-locals was responded to rather negatively, since

Javanese people preferred quietness and a more

harmonious situation. From the inter-group anxiety

point of view, value differences brought about

situations where non-local students feel awkward

and uncertain of how to behave in the face of fellow

Javanese as host culture. Some stereotypes about

Javanese people, like the tendency to appreciate

more polite attitudes and behavior, would be

considered as “baper” or overly-sensitive by

non-local students from outside Java.

This research pointed out congruity among

various theories on acculturative stress based on

international migration to observe internal

migration. Prejudice, in this case towards host

culture, was found to be correlated with

acculturative stress experienced by non-local

students. However, perception of fluency in

speaking a local language, which was predicted to be

the main instrument in communication, was proven

to have insignificant influence on acculturative

stress. Some earlier studies on non-local students

still saw obstacles regarding communication process

and language as the main difficulties of non-local

students (e.g. Rundengan, 2013; Utami, Wisadiran

and Nasution, 2014; Lagu, 2016; Miagoni, 2015).

This might be explained by the emotional function

of language, hence the emphasis was not on the

exchange of information between languages, since it

could be represented by Bahasa Indonesia. The

emphasis would be more on the awkward and

uneasy feeling experienced by non-local students,

whenever unable to converse in a local language.

Such feeling made them unaware and uncertain to

face the current situation. This situation resembled

inter-group anxiety concept from the Inter-group

Threat Theory (Stephan, 2000). Plant and Devine

(2003) concluded that unpleasant inter-group contact

and negative expectation would lead to inter-group

anxiety. Meanwhile, Hassan (1987) found that

people with higher anxiety often showed higher

prejudice. These findings provided a hypothesis that

the function of language in multicultural relationship

context in Indonesia may rather lead to emotional

function in communication process, including

possible escalation of prejudice in the

communication process itself.

Several studies showed that gender played a role

in influencing acculturative stress (Mahmood, 2014;

Sirin, et al., 2013). Nonetheless, current research

found that gender had no significant influence on

acculturative stress. This might be explained by all

participants having the same obligation as college

students, with no different academic treatments of

either men or women. However, results also showed

that despite not having significant influence, female

students reported slightly higher acculturative stress

than male students, in accordance to the study

conducted by Cuellar, Arnold and Maldonado

(1995). Character differences between male and

female students at a certain level might correlate

with emotional function (Manning, 2004).

5 IMPLICATION, LIMITATION

AND FUTURE RESEARCH

DIRECTION

Results of the current research provided an insight

into accordance of various theories on acculturative

stress from studies on international migration to be

applied to internal migration. Nevertheless, in order

to comprehend acculturative stress in the internal

migration context, more attention should be put on

the local context factor, in this case Bahasa

Indonesia, in relation to local languages. Future

research may attempt to explore local cultural

context which may influence acculturative stress or

other issues related to multicultural relationships,

such as, is there a certain belief system moderating

prejudice and acculturative stress?

Future research may also focus on studies on

acculturation by noticing characteristics often

labelled to certain ethnic groups in Indonesia.

Regarding geographic movement, some ethnic

groups in Indonesia are well-known for migrating,

like Minang tribe from Sumatera and Bugis from

Sulawesi. On the contrary, Java tribe is more

attached to their place of origin, having principles

such as “mangan ora mangan sing penting kumpul”

(meaning the most important thing is to stick

together living in the same region, whether or not

they live in prosperity) which doesn’t support

migration. Future studies may put efforts into

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comparing acculturative stress among different

ethnicities in terms of their principles and belief

system. Berry (1997) suggested that research which

didn’t embrace cultural and psychological

characteristics in an individual would not be able to

truly comprehend the adaptation process.

The shortcoming of the current research is that it

was a correlational study, which did not allow causal

explanations. Also, instruments and measures used

in this research were self-report measures, making it

more likely to hold bias.

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