National Identity Analysis and Foreign Policy: Australia Turn Back

the Boats Policy under Tony Abbott

Fauzi Firmansyah Prakoso and Baiq Wardhani

Department of International Relations, Faculty of Social and Political Sciences, Universitas Airlangga

Keywords: Australia, Turn Back the Boats Policy, Level of Analysis, National Identity

Abstract: In the beginning of 2000s, Australia began to impose the rejection of asylum-seekers policy because their

number is constantly increasing. From all the policies that have been applied, Tony Abbott’s policy, which is

“Turn Back the Boats” policy, became one of the policies that being discussed by many actors because before

the policy is being applied, Australia has always been accepting many asylum-seekers, but it suddenly

changed. One of the reason that the policy is being implemented is that Australian society feel threatened by

the arrival of the asylum-seekers. Related with the policy, the author tries to analyze the implementation of

the “Turn Back the Boats” policy using the national identity level of analysis. In this case, the author will

some of the concepts of the national identity to explain it, which is the basic concept of national identity, the

concept of national self-image, the concept of strategic culture, and the concept of national role. The

author thinks that those concept could explain why the national identity can influence the “Turn Back the

Boats” policy..

1 INTRODUCTION

Australia was originally one of the countries open to

receiving asylum seekers. According to Janet Phillips

(2011: 2), Australia has hosted approximately

700,000 asylum seekers since the end of the Cold War

II to date. However, entering the 2000s, Australia

began to change policies related to this because of

various reasons, among others, the increasing number

of illegal asylum seekers. The culmination of illegal

asylum seekers entering Australia was when the

Tampa incident took place, where as many as 400

asylum seekers came from Indonesia to Christmas

Island. The large number of asylum seekers was

eventually endeavored by Australia to return to

Indonesia as a form of Australian resistance to their

arrival (Kasic, 2014: 19). Since that incident,

Australia has begun to regard asylum seekers as a

threat so that this has affected policy changes since

the leadership of John Howard (2001-2007) to Tony

Abbott (2013-2015). The policy that first reflected

this rejection was the offshore processing policy of

John Howard's reign, which was later developed by

Tony Abbott into a stop the boats or turn back the

boats policy (Phillips, 2014: 3). This policy is in the

form of stopping boats carrying asylum seekers who

come illegally through waterways. Given this policy,

approximately 2015 illegal asylum seekers have been

detained by immigration detention in 2015

(Australian Border Force, 2015: 8).

As mentioned earlier, the reason behind this

policy is to begin the growing view that asylum

seekers are a threat to Australia. In addition, through

his speech, Tony Abbott stated that "if you want to

stop the deaths, if you want to stop drowning, you've

got to stop the boats" (Hunt, 2013). The meaning

behind this Abbott statement is to prevent the death

of the abandoned asylum seekers, it would be better

if the asylum seekers are returned to the former

sending country. In addition, the adoption of this

policy is also based on the protection of Australia's

national security. This is due to an indication of the

crime of human smuggling within the group of

asylum seekers entering Australia. This incident then

leads to the formation of people smuggler's business

model, where within the group of asylum seekers,

there are some people who serve as victims of human

trafficking. According to Refugee Action Coalition

Sydney (2015), during the period 2006-2010 has been

known as much as approximately 16 actors of human

trafficking in groups of asylum seekers. This figure

does not include the perpetrators who escaped

Australia's security. If this continues, it will pose a

threat to Australia's national security. Therefore,

Tony Abbott implemented the turn back the boats

policy.

Turny the boats policy implemented by Tony

Abbott has been proven to be supported by the

majority of Australians. It is noted that as many as

60% of the people in Australia support the policies set

Prakoso, F. and Wardhani, B.

National Identity Analysis and Foreign Policy: Australia Turn Back the Boats Policy under Tony Abbott.

DOI: 10.5220/0010279000002309

In Proceedings of Airlangga Conference on International Relations (ACIR 2018) - Politics, Economy, and Security in Changing Indo-Paciﬁc Region, pages 477-483

ISBN: 978-989-758-493-0

477

by Tony Abbott regarding the rejection of asylum

seekers (Vieszadeh, 2013). The majority of

Australians show their resentment towards asylum-

seekers, even to discriminatory attitudes. The large

number represents the discriminatory nature of the

community towards asylum seekers. They assume

that asylum-seekers are sometimes not genuine

asylum seekers, whereas genuine asylum seekers are

truly asylum-seekers, so many disagree with the

asylum seekers (Dorling, 2014). However, in fact 70-

97% of asylum seekers are actually genuine asylum

seekers, but this data seems incapable of altering the

views of Australian society towards such asylum

seekers. As many as 59% of people think the asylum

seekers are not genuine, while only 30% consider the

asylum seekers genuine and the rest do not think

(Dorling, 2014). The data shows how the majority of

people basically also start not wanting to accept the

asylum seekers who come through the sea lane. Of

course this response is a positive thing for the policy

run by Tony Abbott.

1.1 National Identity and Foreign

Policy

Level of Analysis that can be used in analyzing a

foreign policy varies. One form of the ranking of this

analysis is the national identity. Hansen (2006: 15)

explains that national identity is an identity owned by

a state actor in which this identity is constructed by

other actors. Waever (2002: 21) adds that this

construct-like nature seems to make national identity

as ambiguous, since the views of an actor on an actor's

national identity will be different from those of other

actors. Apart from other actors, a national identity can

also be formed by individuals within a country itself

(Clunan, 2009: 23). This in itself is a natural trait for

all individuals, ie each individual will tend to give a

separate identity for a thing, not exception for a

country. The existence of this national identity aims

to distinguish between identity one with another

identity. This distinction between identities will make

it easier for any actor to interact, where identity can

also represent an ownership, whether in terms of

culture or territory (Clunan, 2009: 23). Even so, the

ambiguity that has been mentioned previously

sometimes causes a dispute because some national

identity can occur friction between identities.

Therefore, national identity has influence in the

formation of foreign policy.

Based on Dharmaputra (2016), the analytical rank

of national identity can be several things, depending

on the underlying concept. The basic concept of this

national identity itself is a question that leads to "who

are we?", "What do we do?", And "who are they?"

(Hudson, 2007: 104). In addition, the national identity

analysis can also use the concept of National Self-

Image, where the concept is an idea related to the

international status of a country as well as the political

objectives of the country. This is the basis of how the

policy should be taken by a country (Clunan, 2009:

29). In addition, there is also the concept of Strategic

Culture in the ranking of this national identity

analysis. According to Booth (1990 in Dharmaputra,

2016), the existence of aspects of a nation can be a

separate strategy for the country to adapt to the

international environment and to overcome the

problems experienced by the country. These aspects

include traditions, values, attitudes, patterns of

behavior, habits, customs, and achievements. Based

on these aspects, a country can determine what role

the country will choose and the military force to be

used in determining a foreign policy.

In addition to basic concepts, the concept of

National Self-Image, and the concept of Strategic

Culture, then there is also another concept contained

in the ranking of national identity analysis, namely

the concept of religion. In this global era, there are

some countries that actually make a religion a

national identity of their country. According to

Carolyn M. Warner and Stephen G. Walker (2011:

117), religion can be a source of views and

assessment of the world against the country. This

view or judgment directly makes the country has its

own national identity. The existence of this concept is

caused by a religious group that dominates in one

country. Another concept that exists in this analytical

rank is the National Role concept. In this concept,

Holsti (1970: 239) explains the existence of three

important elements, including explanations related to

the main mission of a country, specific ideas relating

to other countries, and the stability of the country

itself. The existence of the National Role or the

national role of a country will certainly form a

separate identity for a country. Then, the final concept

in the ranking of national identity analysis is

ideology. What a country believes will lead to what

the country will do based on ideology or beliefs

believed by the country, not least the foreign policy

of a country (Schonberg, 2007: 13).

Although it has some concepts, researchers can be

free to use any concept, because one concept alone

represents the rank of national identity analysis.

According Dharmaputra (2016), at least the main

principle that must be emphasized is how the

perception that emerged from the relationship of

"self-others". The emergence of this perception and

then forming a thought for one of the parties related

ACIR 2018 - Airlangga Conference on International Relations

478

to what policy will be done if the national identity in

such a way. In addition, this identity is also not

written, but only limited to the perception of various

parties. This then makes the identity does not have a

fixed form, but continues to change in accordance

with the perception formed by the general public.

This continuous change causes the identity to be

sometimes not easy to be understood rationally

(Dharmaputra, 2016). However, the establishment of

this identity can still affect the foreign policy of a

country. The existence of a change of identity does

not make the identity has no effect on foreign policy,

but the change will be the basis of foreign policy

changes for a country. Therefore, sometimes a

country seeks to keep its national identity, because if

there is a drastic change in terms of national identity,

then the country must be courageous in making

changes in foreign policy in totality as well.

1.2 National Identity Analysis and

Turning Back Boat Policy

The sustainability of Australia's turn back the boats

policy on Tony Abbott's government can be analyzed

using national identity analysis ratings. Of the six

concepts previously mentioned, the author will

attempt to use the basic concepts of national identity,

the concept of national self-image, the concept of

strategic culture, and the national role of national

identity analysis in analyzing Australian turn back the

boats policy. However, it is necessary to focus first on

what kind of identity will be discussed because

Australia can be said to have a diverse identity. Based

on the writings of Sara Causins (2005: 2), Australia is

a British Commonwealth country that makes

Australia's identity closely related to Britain.

However, it should be recalled that in Australia there

are already indigenous people who can still be found

in the vicinity of Australia, where they call

themselves as Aboriginal people. Of course this can

also be separated from Australia's national identity.

Not to mention, in the current era many Australians

who have descendants from Asian societies such as

Malaysia, China, and Lebanon (Holton, 1997).

Related to this, the author will use the modern

Australian national identity, the identity associated

with "European whiteness". This identity considers

Australians to be white people who have been living

in Australia for a long time.

For the first, the authors will link the policies set

by Australia regarding the refusal of asylum seekers.

According to Hudson's writings (2007: 104), the

identity of a country can be represented by "who are

we?", "What do we do?" And "who are they?"

Statements. When it is associated with turn back the

boats policy, the authors analyze that there is an

element of desire to preserve the original identity of

Australia. Australia wants to maintain the dominance

of the white population in Australia (Kasic, 2014: 33).

Actually it has been implemented by the White

Australian Policy from 1901 to 1973, in which

Australia restricted the arrival of non-white asylum

seekers into Australia. However, even if it is not

implemented, the majority of Australians still adhere

to the values of the White Australian Policy. This is

seen in how Australians reject the coming of asylum

seekers who are mostly from different countries. In

addition, these values also serve as the basis for why

Australia's policy of initially accepting asylum

seekers has been to repatriate asylum-seekers. If

Australia continues to accept asylum-seekers, whose

numbers continue to increase, then Australia's

national identity will be threatened to change, as well

as identical identities with white communities will be

threatened as well. Therefore, this consideration is the

reason why the implementation of turn back the boats

policy.

The form of distinction between white Australians

and asylum seekers who are mostly non-white can be

answered with the direction of the basic concept of

national identity. Related questions "who are we?",

"We" is a white Australian society that has long been

settled in Australia and has long been part of Australia

itself. Then, the question "what do we do?" Can lead

to cultures and values prevailing in Australia for a

long time. These cultures and values have its origins

in the Australian society and indirectly make it its

own national identity for Australia. The last question,

"who are they?", Is a question addressed to asylum

seekers. Therefore, this question is answered with

non-white people. Not only have different skin colors,

the asylum seekers also have different values because

the majority of asylum seekers are Muslims. Not only

skin color and value, the culture of the asylum seekers

is of course also much different than that of the

already developed culture in Australia (Hartley and

Pederson, 2015: 189). The author analyzes that the

existence of differences in values and culture will

actually cause clash of civilization so that it can

threaten the national identity owned by Australia.

Therefore, it is only natural that Australia implements

a turn back the boats policy to safeguard Australia's

national identity.

After connecting with the basic concept of

national identity, the author will also try to analyze

the policy of turn back the boats with the concept of

national self-image owned by Australia. The concept

of national self-image according to Anne L. Clunan

National Identity Analysis and Foreign Policy: Australia Turn Back the Boats Policy under Tony Abbott

479

(2009: 29) is a stereotype of others against a country.

This stereotype can be an international status of a

country which then relates to what action should be

done by that country. Before further, it is necessary to

understand first how the actual self-image is owned

by Australia. According to Anne Pedersen et al.

(2005: 170), many view Australia as an example of a

country that has successfully implemented the

concept of a multicultural society. This can be seen in

the many foreign cultures that enter and expand in

Australia, such as Asian culture, Yugoslavia, Italy,

and Arab. However, despite the many cultures that

enter, they are treated less well by the Australian

community. Australians tend to discriminate against

people who are considered non-indigenous

Australians. This is because the majority of

Australians tend to show negative action to immigrant

people in Australia. This action was also carried out

by Australians to asylum seekers who came to

Australia (Pedersen et al., 2005: 170). According to

the authors, this has indirectly shaped the self-image

of Australia, the anti-immigrant country.

The development of self-image is then considered

the authors have an effect on the implementation of

turn back the boats policy run by Tony Abbott.

Australian self-image, which shows the anti-

immigrant nature of the immigrants, certainly makes

the policy run by the government also rejects non-

indigenous migrants. If Australia makes it easy for

asylum seekers to get into Australia, this will

certainly get strong opposition from the Australian

public, as self-image related to the rejection of foreign

residents is strong enough to stick to each other. As

Clunan explains (2009: 30), the self-image that has

become a national identity is certainly dominated by

a large number of people, thus making it a threat if

there are parties who want to contradict self- the

image. In addition, self-image is also inherent in a

long time. Therefore, it can be said that the policy of

turn back the boats is a continuation of Australian

self-image that feels anti against asylum seekers,

where the majority of the asylum seekers are residents

who are not from Australia but from countries in the

Middle East . Although some sides think this is bad,

but still Australia does not feel there is anything

wrong with the self-image or the policies that apply

because Australia considers it is also for the benefit

of Australia itself.

In addition to the basic concepts related to

national identity and the concept of national self-

image, the author will also discuss how the concept

of strategic culture affects the sustainability of

Australia's turn back the boats policy. As mentioned

earlier, aspects such as traditions, values, attitudes,

patterns of behavior, habits, customs, and

achievements possessed by a country can be a

separate strategy for a country in adapting or solving

problems owned by a country (Booth , 1990 in

Dharmaputra, 2016). While not all of these aspects

have influenced the establishment of Australia's turn

back the boats policy, some aspects have been able to

represent the reasons for the implementation of the

policy. The author will try to take only a few aspects

of Australian policy that have refused the arrival of

asylum seekers before the turn back the boats policy

of Tony Abbott's time. Australia began refusing

asylum seekers since the reign of John Howard

(2001-2007). While leading, Howard tries to

indoctrinate Australian society with the assertion that

asylum seekers are a threat to Australia. In fact, the

term "queue jumper" has grown among the people,

where it considers the asylum seekers, especially

those coming by sea, to asylum seekers who tend to

break the rules. This Howard doctrine has been

judged to have established a value in society that also

became a supporter of the refusal policy of asylum

seekers (Klocker and Dunn, 2003: 71).

The value established by John Howard must also

be followed by action, where John Howard did not

accept the Tampa ship and sent him back to his home

country of departure from the vessel. Along with

these measures, Howard also tightened the Border

Protection Act and the Migration Amendment Act to

make it harder for asylum seekers to enter Australia

(McAdam and Purcell, 2007: 88). After the reign of

Howard, the post of Prime Minister of Australia was

attributed to Kevin Rudd in 2007 to 2010, Julia

Gillard in 2010 to 2012, and Kevin Rudd again in

2013 before being held by Tony Abbott. Although the

implementation of the refusal policy of asylum

seekers has changed, the value of rejection of the

asylum seekers is still embedded in each Australian

society. This is evident in how Australian policy

keeps trying not to accept asylum seekers, despite the

different ways (Karlsen, 2010). This continues to be

maintained by the Australian government because

this policy is able to make Australia safer because the

number of illegal asylum seekers continues to

decline. When analyzed, the authors can see that both

the actions, values, and achievements of the refusal

policy of asylum seekers prior to Tony Abbott's

administration can underlie the enforcement of turn

back the boats policy. The actions and values of the

refusal of asylum seekers remain followed by this

policy, and the achievement of reducing the number

of illegal asylum seekers is also attempted to be

achieved (Karlsen, 2010).

ACIR 2018 - Airlangga Conference on International Relations

480

The final concept that will be linked by the author

on Australian turn back the boats policy is the concept

of a national role. National role, or national role itself

can be interpreted as how a country plays a role which

then gives a meaning to the international system. In

addition, this concept also has three important

elements, including explanations related to the main

mission of a country, specific ideas relating to other

countries, as well as the stability of the country itself

(Holsti, 1970: 239). When looking at what was

written by K. J. Holsti (1970: 296), one of the roles

assigned to Australia is as a regional protector, or

security guard of the region. The area referred to in

this context is the Oceania region. The concepts of

this role include perceptions of threats, geographical

location, traditional policies, as well as the needs of

the countries that are threatened. When it comes to

Australia's role in the Oceania region, it is clear that

there are significant differences between Australia

and other Oceania countries in various aspects, be it

economic to security. This makes the Oceania

countries dependent on Australia (National

Geographic, t.t.). Dependence also includes facing

the threat posed by the arrival of asylum seekers. To

secure the security of the Oceania region, Australia

has provided funding to immigration detention

centers in areas such as Nauru and Papua New Guinea

(Harvey, 2015).

By holding the role of regional protector, the

funding of the detention center already represents the

role that Australia has. This in turn has also had an

effect on the sustainability of turn back the boats

policy, where the detention center is formed into a

policy support facility. This is done by Australia

because, as mentioned earlier, asylum seekers are a

threat. This threat is not just for Australia, but

Australia also considers this a threat to the Oceania

region. Therefore, every asylum seeker who comes by

sea to Australia is directly "repatriated" to the sending

country of the asylum seekers (Babones, 2016).

Australia's national role is seen to be an Australian

national identity which later became the basis of the

policy of turn back the boats. Australia, which plays

an important role in safeguarding the territory of

Oceania, is responsible for eliminating any threats

that threaten the security of the Oceania region, in

which Australia considers the asylum seekers a threat

both to the security and to the national identity of each

country. Other countries can follow Australian policy

because, according to the author, that role makes

other countries dependent on Australia, so they only

consider what Australia does for the common good.

Through the analysis, the authors argue that the

level of analysis of national identity is influential in

Australia's turn back the boats policy under Tony

Abbott's leadership. Of the four concepts, the main

reason why Australia implements the policy is that

asylum seekers are a threat to Australia. As McHugh-

Dillon (2015: 21) says, asylum-seekers differ in

different ways from the Australian population, so

they worry that their identities are affected by

asylum-seekers. This led to the formation of an

Australian national identity in the form of anti-

immigrants, such as asylum-seekers. To prevent the

entry of such asylum seekers, Australia implemented

the turn back the boats policy. Although it has

received criticism from various parties, the policy is

still implemented by Australia because it is based on

the national identity of Australia, where the national

identity has a dominant character in a country, so the

policy of course also gets the full support of the

community. In addition, the national identity is also a

thing that has been attached to the people themselves,

so this provides stronger support to the policy.

2 CONCLUSION

As is commonly known to the majority of people in

the world, Australia is a multicultural country that has

many cultural elements in it. However, the increasing

number of immigrants, especially the asylum seekers

coming from the sea lane, Australia must change the

initial policy that always receives asylum receivers.

This is because the asylum seekers are perceived by

Australia not to be given protection, or not called

genuine asylum seekers. Hence the policy of rejecting

asylum seekers has been established since the reign

of John Howard and subsequently expanded to the

reign of Tony Abbott. In Tony Abbott's government,

this policy is known as turn back the boats policy,

where ships of asylum seekers entering Australia will

be returned to the ship's sending country.

Implementation of this policy can be said to be caused

by the development of anti-immigrant values in the

majority of the population in Australia. This value is

actually the result of the doctrine of John Howard as

a form of rejection of asylum seekers who want to go

to Australia. If viewed from the outside, this policy is

based on public concerns about asylum seekers who

can cause problems in Australia. However, beyond

that the authors can say there is another element

underlying the sustainability of turn back the boats

policy, namely the existence of the element of

Australia's own national identity.

The national identity that the authors say is

influential in the formation of turn back the boats is

an anti-immigrant identity, in which Australia does

National Identity Analysis and Foreign Policy: Australia Turn Back the Boats Policy under Tony Abbott

481

not want any migrants, such as asylum seekers, to

come to Australia illegally. Even the Australians

themselves are not uncommon to discriminate against

migrants. This can be analyzed by the basic concept

of national identity, where "they" are referred to as

asylum seekers who have different elements that

reside in Australia. In addition, this analysis is further

strengthened after the authors linked it to the concept

of national self-image and the concept of strategic

culture, where the value of rejection of asylum

seekers has been able to become self-image for

Australia as well as supporting the establishment of a

strategic culture based on the value of anti-asylum

seekers. Not only that, Australia's national identity is

also shaped by a national role, in which Australia

plays a role in safeguarding the region around

Australia, namely the Oceania region. Given the

analysis linking the four concepts to the background

of the enactment of the policy of turn back the boats,

the authors conclude that the policy implemented by

Tony Abbott is influenced by an Australian element

of national identity in the form of anti-immigration. If

Australia continues to receive it, then there will be

many threats provided by the asylum seekers, whose

Australian national identity will also be threatened

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