The Changing Face of Human Security: Lesson from Indonesia,

Malaysia, and Singapore in Transboundary Haze Pollution (THP)

Kurniawati Sa’adah and Aisyah Meidiana Soetirto

Department of International Relation, Faculty of Social and Political Science, Universitas Airlangga, Indonesia

Keywords: Deforestation, globalization, human security, trans-boundary haze pollution.

Abstract: This paper tries to analyze contemporary global issues related to transboundary haze transfers seen from the

eyes of human security. This study also seeks to examine a new form of security in the era of globalization

using the concept of human security to explain more in depth on the issue of transboundary haze pollution.

The definition of security have enhanced these days and the proliferation of this issue has affected our daily

life, so the concept of security is not only related to sovereignty, state security, and economic security.

Environmental security and health security are several examples of the human security concern. Hence, the

concept of human security will be best tool to examine and analyse this research. Transboundary haze

pollution not only affected Indonesia as a center of the forest fire but also affected countries around it such

as Malaysia and Singapore which is suffered from toxic and hazardous air coming from Indonesia’s forest.

As a result, deforestation put everyone into a risk globally and locally. This phenomenon happens every

year and involved several NGOs and IGOs as well but it look like it will not come to an end, the lack of

states capabilities to end up this problem that appear due to neglection towards that issue. As a result not

only the economic sector is disturbed but also in the long term, this smoke causes respiratory health

problems. This forest fire phenomenon occurs almost every year involving not only state actors, but also

some NGOs, INGOs, MNCs and even state-run multinational organizations, but this effort also does not

seem to deliver tangible results. How is the involvement of various actors both state actors and non-state

actors in solving this problem.

1 INTRODUCTION

Transboundary Haze Pollution (THP) occurred in

Sumatra's forest as well as Malaysia caused by

extreme weather, drought, El-Nino, as well as land

clearing with forest utilization by MNC actors.

Singapore's Remote Imaging Center reports that

70% of fires are obtained from oil palm plantations.

The Center for International Forestry Research

(CIFOR) reports that it only takes a few days,

especially if there are materials that facilitate the

widespread fire of oxygen, the temperature (heat) of

fire will make the fire unmanageable. Because of

these factors that trigger the occurrence of fires that

occur each year. Thereafter, the results expanded

and expanded en masse, changing the economic,

political and tourism sectors of the affected

countries. Tan (2015) argued that there should be a

monitoring system for the prevention of forest and

land fires, accompanied by additional preventive

methods, outside expertise and assistance and the

improvement of firefighting capability, particularly

in Indonesia.

The abundance of forest functions into palm oil

plantations and mining that are carried out

irresponsibly by certain individuals and even

corporations. Land clearing is mostly done by forest

burning which is not uncommon to be a fire that is

not controlled. The effects of these forest fires affect

not only the existing ecosystems in the forests, the

communities living around fires and the Indonesian

people in general, but the smoke from these forest

fires affects many sectors and is cross-border. Some

of the countries affected directly are Malaysia and

Singapore which are the closest to the country with

fire points.

This is not consider as a contemporary issue at

the moment but it still relevant as the smoke still

occurred now and then. The cross-country haze that

occurred in Indonesia is a classic problem that

occurred since the 1990s. As a result, this haze not

only affects Indonesia but also affects the

neighbouring countries of Singapore, Malaysia,

382

Sa’adah, K. and Soetirto, A.

The Changing Face of Human Security: Lesson from Indonesia, Malaysia, and Singapore in Transboundary Haze Pollution (THP).

DOI: 10.5220/0010277500002309

In Proceedings of Airlangga Conference on International Relations (ACIR 2018) - Politics, Economy, and Security in Changing Indo-Paciﬁc Region, pages 382-386

ISBN: 978-989-758-493-0

Brunei Darussalam to reach South Thailand. This

continuous deforestation is not only the concern of

the country involved and directly affected, but also a

global concern. This phenomenon occurs almost

every year influenced by various factors such as

extreme dry weather, El-nino, and not infrequently

the burning of new land clearing for uncontrolled oil

palm plantations. This forest fire not only creates

smog crossing national boundaries, but also causes

the loss and destruction of forest ecosystem which is

the heart of the world.

This paper argues that THP is something that

will likely to continue since it is become even more

complex involving so many factors and actors.

Hence, through globalization human security

changes its face into so many ways, because the

more the actors the higher the complexity of the

issue. As for that matter, this research will

emphasize more on how human security has

changed in this very globalized world and the

involvement of so many actors both state actors as

well as non-state actors and conflict interest could

create a complex problematic and new issue not only

economic, social, health, law, but also environment

issues. How long this phenomenon will remain and

what lesson we could get from this paper. The

author argue that even though this phenomenon

considered as non-contemporary issue but this is

important to address this case study and forecast the

trajectory solutions in the aftermath. Since the

governments, NGOs, IGOs and MNCs still operate

themself, there will always possibility that THP

occur and there will always a way to prevent this to

happen.

2 METHODS

This paper use qualitative explanatory research

methods as well as literature review. This study

refers to some of the previous studies that address

issues and related phenomena. The data obtained

will be sorted out to be classified in accordance with

the materials needed in the research, then conducted

in-depth analysis and associated with the concept

that has been prepared to further be drawn

conclusions in order to answer the formulation of

research problems. Human security concept used to

picture the changing definition of human security in

globalization era. According to UNDP (2015) in the

21st century human security is where unilateral

actions by single states are inadequate to deal with

threats which occurred on the global level involving

interactions occur along geological, geographic,

climatic, biological, and social systems. In addition,

the author use Transnational Capitalist Class (TCC)

which argued by Leslie Sklair. Sklair (2002) argues

that there are some treasons which affect the states

and global corporations not necessarily can stop the

pattern of consumerism happening at the global level

because they are part of them.

3 RESULTS

After the end of the Cold War and the era of

globalization the definition of security has shifted

more broadly, so the concept of security not only

deals with countries without armed warfare,

ceasefires and more state-centric military forces.

Traditionally, the concept of national security refers

to the capacity of a sovereign state to withhold a

military invasion within the scope of territorial

boundaries. However, security threats and insecurity

are broader in scope, including human security,

environmental security, and economic security. As a

consequence the problems of poverty, welfare,

education, environmental degradation, injustice and

humanity are discussed in security issues in the

global era which then led to the concept of human

security (Scholte, 2000). Human security is

generally defined as the guarding of the major vital

matters in all aspects of human life that can enhance

the fulfillment of human needs, preserving the vital

and fundamental freedoms for human existence and

development (Nakanishi, 2017). Lohman, et al

(2007) Transboundary Haze Pollution caused by

forest fires in Kalimantan and Sumatra causes not

only financial, social and environmental losses to

Indonesia. However, the smoke haze caused by

forest fires also has a negative impact on

neighbouring countries, namely Malaysia, Brunei

Darussalam, Singapore and South Thailand. The

impacts intended in this paper may be the direct and

indirect impacts felt by Indonesia, Malaysia and

Singapore and even global civil society in general.

As reported by The Diplomat (2015), that the case is

perpetrated by many irresponsible corporations and

is not a case that can be resolved by the sovereign

state where the forest fires occur.

The ASEAN Agreement on Transboundary

Hazard Pollution (AATHP) meets to discuss the case

and propose for the establishment of a national,

regional and international effort and cooperation to

prevent, monitor, mitigate land and forest fires and

control THP. Through the ASEAN Economic

Community (AEC) some ASEAN member countries

ratified this agreement in 2003 and Indonesia

The Changing Face of Human Security: Lesson from Indonesia, Malaysia, and Singapore in Transboundary Haze Pollution (THP)

383

became the last country to ratify in 2015. Singapore

also create Transboundary Haze Pollution Act which

is a policy that criminalizes the perpetrators behind

forest fires whose smoke reaches Singapore. There

are so many agreements upon this issue yet it still

can solve the problem occurred. However, these

initiatives continually fail to effectively mitigate

haze. This article argues that this failure is due to the

influence of patronage politics in the sector, which is

linked to the ASEAN style of regional engagement

that prioritises the maintenance of national

sovereignty. NASA and CIFOR show 21% THP

caused by MNCs, 79% of cases are much more

likely to come from fires on land owned or rented by

small holders. Although El Nino is no longer

considered a controlling factor, the consistency of

smoke haze problem is caused by the massive

expansion of palm oil plantation in the peat area.

Large scale peat growth has occurred due to inherent

land rights plaintiff (Antara News, 2015).

4 DISCUSSION

Environmental degradation and health problem was

the main issue regarding THP. However, as for

environment degradation and lack of resources in

ASEAN, the main reason is “massive

industrialisation activities of Asia in the world

economy" (Vervoorn, 1998). THP's contribution

significantly adds to the long list of global

environmental degradation and impacts on

transnational social and economic issues. As

reported by (The Diplomat, 2015) that the case is

perpetrated by many irresponsible corporations and

is not a case that can be resolved by the sovereign

state where the forest fires occur. It requires active

involvement of the Indonesian, Malaysian and

Singaporean countries and the international

community in halting this annual forest burning

activity. It is not the responsibility of one country

but it is the duty of all parties involved either

directly or indirectly to participate in the prevention

of such global environmental and climate issues.

Regardless of the insufficient standards of

administration, badly manage of the rules and law

enforcement both at local and international level, the

economic interest is one thing that make this issue

ongoing. The local courts are also lacking of the

awareness related to regulations and laws required to

prosecute those which caused the fire in the first

place. Nevertheless, do take into account that there

is also conflict interest in the countries involved. The

main obstruction is due to the lack of institutional

ability to overcome fire forest issues. Especially, the

law enforcement in Indonesia which remains

tremendously weak regarding legal exploitation by

corporations (Maulidia, 2006). Since Indonesia is

the biggest source and major factor of forest fire

which causing the haze in ASEAN region. Indonesia

has the largest rain forest and palm oil plantation

throughout ASEAN but it has lack of infrastructure

and legal law. This kind of environment will likely

beneficial for corporations to take for granted. This

has always been the corporations and the lack of

capability of the countries involved that make this

issue keep going. For instance, the corporations are

neglecting the environmental degradation issue and

such for the sake of their own profit. Many legal and

illegal land burning were supported by these giant

companies. Hence, exploitation will keep going and

inevitable in the corrupt institution, low

environmental awareness and law enforcement

scarcity especially in Indonesia as the biggest palm

oil plantation forest. The demand of the palm oil

based products is higher in the marketplace.

Consequently, many corporations will likely need

the raw material and use it to produce products

needed by the customer.

Transnational Capitalist Class (TCC) by Sklair

(2005) explain that consumerism culture is not

necessarily made by the corporations and that is why

it is their fault. But, the consumers also play a big

role in captivating and prosecuting demand in

certain products. As long as the demand is higher,

the corporations will likely use this opportunity to

gain more profit and revenue to keep running their

business. The higher the profit, the higher the

economic growth in the business sector. This will

benefit the country in some way not to mention the

degradation effect in another sectors. This cycle has

been vicious cycle over the time that make it even

more complicated in the national level. The

government is in a bind situation. Members of this

new class have connections to each other that have

become more significant than their ties to their home

nations and governments (The conversation.com,

2017).

However, the awareness needed not only in the

government level, but also in individual level. Not to

mention that every individual responsible for this

thing to happen. TCC works in global politics

concerns the role of the globalizing professionals,

the scientists and technologists on whom the whole

activity is said to rest (Sklair, 2002). For instance,

the corporations which has palm oil business based

will likely promote and engage methods and ways to

prolong the business in the long term. Consequently,

ACIR 2018 - Airlangga Conference on International Relations

384

the practice such as land clearing, forest fire is

consider necessary thing and that is why it is

important to keep this situation.

Besides, THP that occurs each year causes as

many as 200 million people to have eye infections

and respiratory disorders due to the harmful

chemicals contained by THP, Singapore's Pollutant

Standard Index (PSI) also reported that its citizens

experience unhealthy air pollution in the 95-107

range. In addition, the economic sector is also

affected by THP, as much as $ 9.4 million of losses

experienced by Indonesia and $ 263 million by

Singapore, which is the majority of the tourism and

transportation sectors. While the indirect impacts

that can be felt both in the short and long term that

deforestation in the form of forest fires for land

clearing conducted in forests of Kalimantan and

Sumatra contribute 40% of total global greenhouse

gas (EGK) emissions that impact on global climate

change because Indonesia's tropical rain forest is one

of the world's lungs. This does not only cause unrest

for ASEAN countries but also countries at the global

level. Besides, health effects due to air impurities,

air toxins such as respiratory system, cardiovascular

system, nervous system, digestive and urinary

system, and exposure during pregnancy are another

side effects.

Apart from the government neglecting, this

human security threat has a short and long term

potential from the parties involved. As we define the

new term of human security based on UNDP

definition, in the global era the term has proliferated

in so many forms. The cooperation from every

actors is important so that all the efforts that has

been done so far was not a symbolic effort.

5 CONCLUSIONS

THP is a new threat to human security because it can

affect human freedom in this case is global civil

society. Such threats include the threat of freedom of

breath of clean air that affects the health, threats of

freedom of desire, economic threats and further

threats to environmental degradation. The limitation

of human desire free from fear is the main indicator

of human security. So the case is no longer an issue

within the local sphere of ASEAN but furthermore it

is a global problem that has global impact.

THP problem is a form of insecurity in non-

traditional approaches tangible Economic Security,

Enviromental Security, Social and Health Security,

Biodiversity across national borders. THP efforts to

resolve through the multilateral environmental

regimes, international organizations and the state

have not been able to cope and stop THP because

there is still economic and political interest behind it.

If the country involved in Indonesia as a major

contributor to THP, Malaysia and Singapore as

affected countries not only ratifies the agreed

agreement but also implements the results of the

agreement, then this problem will most likely be

resolved. Government involvement, the private

sector and civil society are urgently needed in this

case. The authors suggest that an agreed, hard-law

THP agreement, policy and law be formulated

between Indonesia, Malaysia and Singapore that can

be truly applied in addressing human security and

environmental issues. Thus, in the case of this paper

the authors conclude that globalization in the form

of international regimes, IGOs, NGOs leads to an

increasingly diverse insecurity not only to a

peaceful, non-war state, but to create new variables

such as ecological, biodiversity and environmental

degradation global. Even this case is not consider

new, but the problem is still there and can still occur

in the near future.

REFERENCES

Alam, S. and Nurhidayah, L., 2017. The international law

on transboundary haze pollution: What can we learn

from the Southeast Asia region?. Review of European,

Comparative & International Environmental Law,

26(3), pp.243-254.

Fukuda-Parr, S., 2003. New threats to human security in

the era of globalization. Journal of Human

Development, 4(2), pp.167-179.

Heilmann, Daniel 2015. After Indonesia’s Ratification:

The ASEAN Agreement on Transboundary

HazePollution and Its Effectiveness As a Regional

Environmental Governance Tool. Journal of Current

Southeast Asian Affairs vol 34, 3, 95–121. GIGA

German Institute of Global and Area Studies, Institute

of Asian Studies and Hamburg University Press.

Jones, D.S., 2006. ASEAN and transboundary haze

pollution in Southeast Asia. Asia Europe Journal,

4(3), pp.431-446.

Kaldor, M., Martin, M. and Selchow, S., 2007. Human

security: a new strategic narrative for Europe.

International affairs, 83(2), pp.273-288.

Lipschutz, Ronnie D. 2004. Global Environmental

Politics: Power, Perspective, and Practice.

Washington: CQ Press.

Lohman, D.J., Bickford, D. and Sodhi, N.S., 2007. The

burning issue. Science(Washington), 316(5823), p.376.

Nazeer, N. and Furuoka, F., 2017. Overview of ASEAN

Environment, Transboundary Haze Pollution

Agreement And Public Health. International Journal

of Asia-Pacific Studies, 13(1).

The Changing Face of Human Security: Lesson from Indonesia, Malaysia, and Singapore in Transboundary Haze Pollution (THP)

385

Nguitragool, P., 2011. Negotiating the haze treaty:

rationality and institutions in the negotiations for the

ASEAN Agreement on Transboundary Haze Pollution

(2002). Asian Survey, 51(2), pp.356-378.

Radcliffe, James. 2004. Political Issues in the World

Today: Environment. Edited by Don MacIver, New

York: Manchester University Press.

Scholte, Jan Aart, 2000. Globalization: A Critical

Introduction . New York: St.Martin’s.

Sklair, L., 2002. The transnational capitalist class and

global politics: deconstructing the corporate-state

connection. International political science review,

23(2), pp.159-174.

Swatuk, Larry A. 2014. Environmental Security on

Advances in International Environmental Politics.

Edited by Michelle Betsill, Kathryn Hochstetler,

Dimitris Stevis. UK: Palgrave Macmillan.

Tan, A (2005), ‘The ASEAN Agreement on

Transboundary Haze Pollution: Prospects for

Compliance and Effectiveness in Post-Suharto

Indonesia’, Environmental Law Journal, Vol. 13, 647-

722.

Quah, E (2002), ‘Transboundary pollution in Southeast

Asia: The Indonesian Fires’, World Development,

Issue no. 30, pp 429-441.

Varkkey, H., 2014. Regional cooperation, patronage and

the ASEAN Agreement on transboundary haze

pollution. International Environmental Agreements:

Politics, Law and Economics, 14(1), pp.65-81.

Antaranews. 2016. ASEAN Agrees to Stop Blame Game

Over Haze Issue. [Online] dalam

http://www.antaranews.com/en/news/105957/asean-

agrees-to-stop-blame-game-over-haze-issue [diakses

pada tanggal 15 Oktober 2017].

International Affairs. 2016. Reducing Indonesia’s

Transboundary Haze Pollution – A New Policy

Approach. [Online] dalam

http://www.internationalaffairs.org.au/news-

item/reducing-indonesias-transboundary-haze-

pollution-a-new-policy-approach/ [diakses pada

tanggal 26 September 2017].

Metrotvnews. 2016. Kendalikan Polusi Asap Lintas Batas,

ASEAN Sepakati Peta Jalan. [Online] dalam

http://internasional.metrotvnews.com/asia/Rb17PDeK-

kendalikan-polusi-asap-lintas-batas-asean-sepakati-

peta-jalan [diakses pada tanggal 14 Oktober 2017].

The Diplomat. Sept 2015. ASEAN’s Dirties Challenge

Make Unwanted Return: Can the region successfully

tackle its haze problem. [Online] dalam

http://thediplomat.com/2015/09/aseans-dirtiest-

challenge-makes-an-unwanted-return/ [diakses pada

tanggal 25 September 2017].

The Jakarta Post. 2014. Singapore passes trans-boundary

haze act. [Online] dalam

http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2014/08/07/singa

pore-passes-trans-boundary-haze-act.html [diakses

pada tanggal 26 September 2017].

Tempo. 2017. 67 Titik Indikasi Kebakaran Hutan

Terdeteksi di Sumatra. [Online] dalam

https://nasional.tempo.co/read/905321/67-titik-

indikasi-kebakaran-hutan-terdeteksi-di-sumatera

[diakses pada tanggal 16 Oktober 2017]

http://haze.asean.org/asean-agreement-on-transboundary-

haze-pollution/

http://haze.asean.org/asean-agreement-on-transboundary-

haze-pollution-2/

ACIR 2018 - Airlangga Conference on International Relations

386