Corruption in the Country of Believers
Dien Yudithadewi and Bonifasius Parikesit
Graduate School of Communication, Paramadina University, Jl. Gatot Subroto kav.97, Jakarta, Indonesia
Keywords: Corruption, Religiosity, Tradition, Believer.
Abstract: In Indonesia, there is an interesting phenomenon in which corruption acts are carried out in a congregational
manner across institutions. Corruption has become ingrained and developed into a tradition since the era of
kingdoms in this archipelago, and according to the Corruption Perception Index 2018, Indonesia sits on the
rank 89 of 180 countries. Contrarily, it is also a country of people who believe in God, heaven, hell, and the
afterlife, and the most corrupt ministry is the Ministry of Religious Affairs. Ironically, former Minister of
Ministry of Religious Affairs is one of the accused, a famous Indonesian corruptor; Nazaruddin, was arrested
while (indicted) having his early meal (sahur) for Ramadan fasting and several perpetrators shamelessly put
the Hajj tittle as part of their names. Thus, the question is: why does Indonesia that is considered as a country
of believers, acquire piles of corruption practices? This paper is trying to find the answer through qualitative
research, with a literature review as the approach. The authors also did random checks through Twitter
influencers for findings confirmation. We found out that although people consider themselves believers who
truly believe in their beliefs, they justify certain corruption act as common practice and part of the culture.
1 INTRODUCTION
The primacy of democracy lies in the institutional
system that guarantees relationships and
responsibilities, not voter statistics, which reduce
citizens as a crowd (Hartiningsih, 2011). When
Montesquieu introduced the Trias Politica, he
assumed that the three branches of state institutions;
legislative, executive, and judicial, always fair and
upheld honesty. As if they are not honest, how would
a nation work?
Unfortunately, in Indonesia, there is an interesting
phenomenon in which corruption acts are carried out
in a congregational manner across institutions.
Therefore, state institutions that are supposed to
supervise each other to conduct justice conspire in a
corrupt manner, instead.
Ironically, corruption has spread and seems to be
a tradition. Even when corruption deals with the
reality of God's existence, it is often placed as a ritual
rite by the perpetrators. A research conducted by one
of independent institutions in South Kalimantan,
South Sulawesi and West Nusa Tenggara in 2006
(Kurnia, 2015), shows that there is a formalization of
religion in public policies for political competition
and covering up the issue of corruption, even though
religion in Indonesia is positioned as the core of value
of life. However, when dealing with gratification, it
seems that religion is an alien that cast away from
their (perpetrators) lives. For example, several
perpetrators shamelessly put the title of Hajj as part
of their names, even one of the famous Indonesian
corruptors (Nazaruddin), was arrested while
(indicted) having his early meal (sahur) for Ramadan
fasting.
Reasonably, believers should be aware that
corruption is similar to stealing, which is categorized
as a sin. Then, since God, the Almighty sees and
knows every single thing, nobody can avoid the
"judgment day." However, when dealing with human
materials, some people tend to forget and even ignore
the nature of God. They try to deceive God.
1.1 Corruption
Corruption, as a word, originally comes from the
Latin corruprus or corrumpere, which means
misconduct, deviant, destructive, and
breaking/harmful. Hence, it's about the misconduct of
authority and power, deviation of law and values, also
destroying and breaking the trust. In general,
corruption is related to damaging, harmful, and
destructive.
Yudithadewi, D. and Parikesit, B.
Corruption in the Country of Believers.
DOI: 10.5220/0009401901970204
In Proceedings of the 1st International Conference on Anti-Corruption and Integr ity (ICOACI 2019), pages 197-204
ISBN: 978-989-758-461-9
Copyright
c
2020 by SCITEPRESS – Science and Technology Publications, Lda. All rights reserved
197
In Indonesia, corruption has become ingrained
and developed into a tradition since the era of
kingdoms in this archipelago. During that period of
time, citizens provide materials to the king as tribute,
then kingdoms provide gratification to VOC, then to
the colonial government. Entering the new order era,
this practice suspected to be increasingly widespread.
Some presidential decrees (suspected) were issued to
give benefit to the family and cronies.
Referring to a research conducted by Oce Madril
(2018) which tittle Political Law of the President in
Corruption Eradication in the Government, there are
at least eight presidential decisions that benefit his
family and cronies. The eight presidential decrees
include the issue of exemption from value-added tax
for Citra taxis, which belong to one of Suharto's sons,
granting monopoly rights to the distribution of
explosion, as well as permission to build an oil
refinery. However, entering the reform era, according
to Teten Masduki, the extent of corruption in
Indonesia is getting worse. While during the new
order era, corruption was led from inside the
presidential palace, now corruption moves
everywhere without control.
According to Kurnia (2015) there are 5 (five)
components incorruption: (1) corruption is a
behavior; (2) the behavior is related to the abuse of
authority; (3) carried out for personal or group gain;
(4) violates the law or deviates from norms or morals;
(5) occurs or is done in a public office setting.
Meanwhile, Klitgaard (1988) defines corruption
in the formula:
c = m + d – a
c = corruption
m = monopoly
d = discretionary power
a = accountability
This formula states that the greater the monopoly
and authority a person has, the greater the corruption
potential. It does not only apply to the scope of
individuals, but also collective group and
institutional.
1.2 Beliefs
In a society social system, there is public agreement
regarding belief/religion’s relation to behavioral
ethics. Religion, according to Fotaki et al. (2015),
gives a norms’ mechanism as well as beacon values
regarding how people must live their lives. The norms
and values are often summarized as religious
convictions, as included in the Qur'an and/or the Bible
(Parbootheah et al., 2008).
Furthermore, research conducted by King (2008)
stated that 84% of people on earth consider
themselves religious. However, the relationship
between behavioral ethics and faith do not go hand in
hand.
Meanwhile, a recent study by WIN/Gallup
International (Gallup International, 2017)
investigates religious convictions of over 66.000
individuals in 68 nations over the world, discovers
that:
• 6 out of 10 individuals on the planet (62%)
believe themselves to be religious, while beneath a
quarter (25%) consider themselves as non-religious,
and 9% believe themselves atheists.
• It has been discovered that levels of religiosity
decrease as income and education levels of the
interviewees increase. While 66% of people with low
income confirm to be religious, this number drops to
50% among individuals with high income. A similar
pattern is confirmed in connection to education
levels: 83% of people with lower education levels are
religious against 49% of higher level.
• 74% of individuals on this planet think we
have a spirit, and 71% believe in God, while 56%
believe in paradise, 54% in the afterlife, and 49% in
hell.
• There is a correlation between religiosity,
beliefs, and socio-demographic characteristics - such
as age, income, and education level. Principally, as
education and income levels grow higher, religiosity
levels tend to decrease. Otherwise, the expression of
different beliefs is higher among young people.
• The survey result shows that all beliefs
decrease as the interviewee’s age rises: 74% of young
individuals between 18 and 24 years old believe in
God, while the number drops to 67% in those aged 65
and older. Believing in afterlife decreases from 60%
in the youngest strata to 45% in the oldest; the belief
in soul declines from 78% to 68%; the belief in hell
drops from 57% to 35%; while the belief in heaven
decreases from 64% in the youngest and 46% in the
oldest.
• People who have less education, express more
beliefs than people with higher levels of education
and people with less available income express more
beliefs than people who have a higher income.
• Bangladesh and Indonesia are the most
believing countries, where nearly the whole
populations claim to believe in God, as well as
afterlife, spirit, paradise, and hell. Then, followed by
Ghana and Pakistan, where religious convictions
exceed 95%.
• The belief in God achieves 100% mentions in
Indonesia, Ghana, Nigeria, Kosovo, and Azerbaijan.
ICOACI 2019 - International Conference on Anti-Corruption and Integrity
198
Regarding Indonesia, the research result above is
reflected in numbers of people (4.34 million) who are
in waiting list for Hajj pilgrimage, with the longest
waiting time is 39 years in South Sulawesi province
(Pikiran Rakyat.com, 2019), plus hundreds of
thousands of people go to Mecca every year for
Umrah pilgrimage, as well as enormous amount of
Masjids across the nation that could reach one million
(Republika, 2019). It seems that Indonesians are true
believers who practice their beliefs.
1.3 Corruption and the
Unconsciousness of Beliefs
Corruption is an act that is not always present in the
form of embezzlement, bribery, commissions,
gratuities, facilitation, and robbery of state money.
Reducing the meaning and nature of corruption to
merely an economy leads to more severe damage.
Corruption does not only make countries become
poor since it's able to live side by side with high
economic growth (Hartiningsih, 2011).
Pote Sarasi, Chair of the Thailand Development
Council in the 1980s, mentioned that if corruption is
limited to the level of below 20%, economic
development is still possible. Some experts, including
economist Sumitro Djojohadikusomo stated that the
level of “leak” in Indonesia since late 1980s had
reached more than 30%.
Ironically, corruption and religion practices in
Indonesia seem to get along well. One of Indonesia's
corruption actor, Nazaruddin, was arrested during
(indicted) his early meal (sahur) for Ramadan fasting
(Tribunnews, 2011), while another one from the
religious party (PKS) using terminology from the
sacred Quran, for his corruption code (Detik.com,
2017).
The title and "casing" of piety do not necessarily
correlate with one's actual action, especially while
making decisions related to worldly materials.
2 PRELIMINARY RESEARCH
Correlation between belief/religion, morality, and
corruption has been studied by some researchers as
below:
Table 1: Preliminary Research.
Research Data Research result
1. Title:
Business Ethics
and Religion:
Religiosity is a statistically
significant predictor of
responses, in a number of ethical
scenarios.
Religiosity as a
Predictor of
Ethical
Awareness
among Students
Authors:
Conroy, Stephen
J.,
Emerson, Tisha
L. N.
Year: 2004
2. Title:
Religion and
Organization: A
Critical Review
of Current Trends
and Future
Direction
Author:
Tracey, Paul
Year: 2012
3. Title:
Whither
morality?
'Finding God' in
the fight against
corruption
Author:
Marquette,
Heather
Year: 2010
Completion of ethics or religion
classes, however, was a
significant predictor of ethical
attitudes in only two of the 25
vignettes (and in the expected
direction).
Males and younger respondents
appear to be more accepting of
the ethically-questionable
vignettes.
Factors outside of the
educational system may be more
influential in shaping responses
to ethical vignettes than are
ethics and religion courses.
Religion hardly features at all in
the major journals that count for
tenure at the leading business
schools.
There is an overwhelming focus
on Western Christianity, with
relatively little having been
written on other religions and
only limited focus on countries
outside North America and
Europe.
In many countries where religion
plays an important role in social
life, usually social ethics refers
to the rules of religion.
Regarding the rapport between
religion and corruption, Beets
(2007, p.72) provides two
assumptions:
(a)Believers who restrain
themselves from corruption, for
it is related to stealing,
dishonesty, illegal, and unfair to
others.
(b)Believers who involved in
corruption for there is no
guidance about corruption in
religion.
However, contrary to the
assumption, refer to the
Transparency International's
Corruption Perception Index (TI-
CPI), most countries with high
levels of corruption, also have
high levels of religiosity.
Corruption in the Country of Believers
199
4. Title:
What Determines
Permissiveness
Toward
Corruption? A
Study of
Attitudes in
Latin America
Author:
Lavena, Cecilia F
Year: 2013
This paper explored how religion
and morals are put aside in
corruption and ethical debates.
In order to clarify the correlation
between religion and corruption,
the research analytically assessed
four causal connections; various
leveled religion, negative
cultural reinforcement, depraved
formalism, and trust
intermediation. The examination
neglected to exactly approve the
causal connections that recent
researches have used to clarify
the correlation between religion
and corruption.
Research discoveries:
(1) Heterogeneity among various
leveled religions: Catholicism,
Orthodox Christianity, and
Islam. They indicated various
mentalities toward conformity to
authority, negative cultural
contents, depraved formalism,
and trust.
(2) The supposition that
individuals in Protestant nations
are less dutiful to authority and
less dependent on a government
appears to be factually and
substantively unimportant in
regard to controlling for the
nation and individual
personalities. One conceivable
clarification could be the
differences within Protestantism.
According to Ellison and Sherkat
(1993), conservative Protestants,
generally, have no issue of
obedience. Hence, it's not about
religion but instead relies upon
the character of people.
(3) Believers of the same
religion, apparently don’t have
solid interactions for sharing
values.
Nonetheless, this research
neglected to affirm the religion-
trust and trust-corruption
relationship.
The observational outcomes
demonstrate that the negative
5. Title:
Does religion
matter to
corruption?
Evidence from
China
Authors:
Xixiong, Xu;
Yaoqin, Li;
Xing,Liu; Weiyu,
Gan
Year: 2017
6. Title:
The Influence of
Personal
Religiosity Level
against
Corruption
Behaviour in the
Province of
Bangka Belitung
Islands
Authors:
Labolo,
Muhadam;
Alma’arif;
Khadafi,
Muhammad
Riqqo
Year: 2018
affiliation among religion and
corruption is more fragile in
territories with more grounded
lawful establishments and the
standard of law.
It derives that inherent
limitations from religions can fill
in as an optional instrument to
anticipate corruption acts in
developed markets like China,
where formal institution systems
and outside control procedures
are deficient.
Moreover, when we separate the
local religions from the outside
ones, our discoveries show that
anti-corruption impacts of local
religions (i.e., Taoism and
Buddhism) are more remarkable
than outside religions (i.e.,
Christianity and Islam).
This research was conducted in
Bangka Belitung Islands
Province, and the goal is to
discover and examine the issues.
The discoveries of research data
demonstrated that individuals in
the Province of Bangka Belitung
Islands have an immense
standard of individual religiosity.
Different discoveries
demonstrated that the impact of
religion is significant in
decreasing the degree of
corruption in society. Otherwise,
people noticed that providing
presents to government officers
was a sensible thing, in a certain
condition.
Furthermore, the individual
religiosity level was ritualistic.
3 RESEARCH METHODS
Research is a process that is carried out in stages,
from planning and design, determining the focus,
research time, data collection, analysis, and
presentation of research results. The authors used
qualitative methods that emphasized on literature
study (library research) to formulate, solve, and
analyze research issues.
ICOACI 2019 - International Conference on Anti-Corruption and Integrity
200
Referring to Neuman (2011: 124), one of the goals
of the literature review is to integrate and summarize
what is known in certain fields. Hence, by studying
what others have been found, expectedly, researchers
able to get new ideas. Furthermore, he mentioned
there are six types of literature review: context
review, historical review, integrative review,
methodological review, self-study review, theoretical
review.
This paper utilized qualitative research with
literature review as the approach, using integrative
review type, in which authors present and summarize
the current knowledge of the topic from sources of
data as below:
Academic journals and papers from other
researchers (preliminary researches)
Textbook with the relevant topic
Articles that related to the topic
Referring to Zed in Rahmat (2010:48), to
obtain comprehensive discussion, authors
implemented points as follow:
Finding and acquiring a general idea on the
research topic;
Finding information to support the research;
Strengthening focus (make it wider or
narrower), organizing reading materials;
Seek and find material that is required;
Re-organizing reading materials and make
essential research notes;
Reviewing and enriching reading materials;
Re-organizing again reading materials/notes,
then begin to write.
4 DISCUSSION
Even though it has been such a "tradition" since the
era of kingdoms in the archipelago, corruption in
Indonesia became massive and structured in the new
order era. Endeavor to reduce corruption was done
through the Presidential Decree Number 28 the Year
1967 on the Establishment of Corruption Eradication
Team and Law No. 3 The year 1971 on Corruption
Criminal Act Eradication, which applies lifetime
imprisonment for maximum punishment. However,
it’s considered an ineffective attempt, for law
enforcement was not effective.
4.1 Corruption in Numbers
The commitment to handle corruption gained
momentum when the reform era began. President
Megawati Soekarnoputri formed the Corruption
Criminal Act Eradication Commission (KPTPK),
which became the embryo of the Corruption
Eradication Commission (KPK) in accordance with
Law No. 30 the Year 2002 on KPK.
According to The Borgen Project work, called 10
Facts About Corruption in Indonesia (Myers, 2019),
a number of corruption in Indonesia declined 55.4
million USD from the year 2018. The total amount of
decrement is 401.45 million USD, and KPK is
considered as one of the causes.
4.2 Corruption and Two Sides of a
Coin of Religious Life
Massive corruption by groups of irresponsible people
has been dragging Indonesia into the abyss of
impoverishment. This is an irony, for Indonesia is a
country that puts “Believe in God” as the number one
foundation of the state, and religiosity plays an
important role in Indonesian society.
Several corruption cases involving public figures
that are depicted as a religious figure, or even the case
itself involving religious matter. One of the shocking
cases was corruption in the Ministry of Religious
Affairs; the Koran procurement, pilgrimage quota,
and the latest one is the position of Head of the
Regional Office.
Other “famous” ironic cases are Banten Governor,
Ratu Atut who is depicted as the religious and polite
figure, and Nazaruddin, who was arrested during
(indicted) his early morning meal (sahur) for
Ramadan fasting. To add the irony, Atut was arrested
by KPK due to corruption of social support funds.
Isn’t it ironic, how the value of a belief that is
believed, not necessarily makes believers implement
it properly?
Referring to the data from the KPK site, in the
years 2016 and 2017, there were one each year, the
accused who deliberately put Hajj title in their names.
The number even increased in the year 2018, became
four people.
The simple summary of the people who put Hajj
title and “religion” related case in the stage of the
investigation, prosecution and accusation, throughout
the years 2016 - 2018 can be presented as follows:
Table 2: List of corruption suspects and defendants (source:
kpk.go.id).
Stage Name
2016
Investigation
Prosecution
H.M. ITOC TOCHIJA, Ir.
M.M.
H. BAMBANG IRIANTO
H. M. JOHAR
Corruption in the Country of Believers
201
Accusation
2017
Investigation
Prosecution
Accusation
2018
Investigation
Prosecution
Accusation
SURYADHARMA ALI
(Minister of Ministry of
Religious Affairs from 2009-
2014.
Cases: misconduct on 2010-
2013 Hajj operation and
Ministry of Religious Affairs
operational funds)
SURYADHARMA ALI
(Minister of Ministry of
Religious Affairs from 2009-
2014.
Cases: misconduct on 2010-
2013 Hajj operation and
Ministry of Religious Affairs
operational funds)
H.M. ITOC TOCHIJA, Ir.
M.M.
Not available
H. M. JOHAR
H. ABDUL LATIF
H. FAUZAN RIFANI H.M.
ZAINUDDIN AS
H. MOCH. ANTON
Dra. Hj. HERI PUDJI
UTAMI, M.AP
H. ABD. RACHMAN
H. AMIN SANTONO
H. IRWANDI YUSUF
H. FAUZAN RIFANI
H. ABDUL LATIF HM.
SAIPUDIN
H. MOCH. ANTON
H. ABD. RACHMAN
H. MOHAN KATELU
H.M. ZAINUDDIN AS
H. IRWANDI YUSUF
H. MOCH. ANTON
H. FAUZAN RIFANI
H. MOHAN KATELU
H.M. ZAINUDDIN AS`
According to research by Lembaga Survei
Indonesia in 2017, there is no correlation between
piety and corruption acts. The meaning of belief and
its rituals only significantly correlate with people's
perspective towards corruption, not the behavior
(Tempo.co, 2017).
The research involving 1,540 respondents from 34
provinces (89% of respondents are Muslims), also
discovered that:
74.9% of respondents who are Muslims, claim
to be very or quite pious;
82.9% of respondents mentioned that they
often or quite often consider religion when
making important decisions;
Regarding the practice of ritual: 55.9% of
Muslim respondents stated that they routinely
perform obligatory five times prayers;
67.5% of respondents claimed that they
routinely do Ramadan fasting;
14.4% of Muslim respondents stated that they
routinely perform un-obligatory (sunnah)
prayers.
According to Azyumardi Azra, lecturer of Syarif
Hidayatullah Jakarta Islamic State University, the
level of devotion does not correlate with anti-
corruption behavior since there is a split personality
in the diverse society. Faith is part of education, but
it doesn’t mean people implement it in daily life.
Furthermore, the research conducted with multi-
stage random sampling method, more or less 2.6%
margin of error and level of trust 95%, stated that:
30.4% of respondents believe that giving
money/gift to expedite procedure with a
government institution, is appropriate;
35.2% of respondents mentioned that they
tolerate collusion;
Three of ten Indonesians consider gratification
and collusion as acceptable common practice;
Correlation between attitude and behavior
toward corruption is positive and significant.
Those points above also supported by other
research findings. Fotaki (2015) confirmed that the
concept of God's forgiveness in Islam has a positive
correlation with unethical behavior in the
organization. In other words, people see God as a
forgiving and merciful figure that always forgives
people’s mistakes, including unethical behavior (at
least in a hypothetical situation in this study).
People's point of view in comprehending the
forgiveness concept provides space to manipulate
themselves (Tenbrunsel and Messick, 2004). Hence,
people are not concerned with the results of their acts,
for they believe exoneration will still be provided to
them.
To confirm what we have found so far, a question
was thrown through Twitter by an influencer who has
277,000 followers. The question is:
ICOACI 2019 - International Conference on Anti-Corruption and Integrity
202
Indonesia is considered a religious country, but
the number of corruption is very high. According to
your opinion, why has this happened?
We got various answers and herewith the
prominent ones:
Faith doesn't fulfill our needs. Religion has a
standard, and humans have their own standard;
The necessity of life makes the standard
adjusted to reality. The goal of working is to
earn a living, not peace of mind through
religious practices;
Corruption is about greed, doesn’t correlate
with religiosity;
People who look religious, are not always real
pious. It’s an image. There’s a belief that
corruption is acceptable, as long as some of the
money is donated to charity;
Religiosity is the safest mask to cover
corruption;
Religion is just a ritual, not spiritual;
Some people believe that they can repent
afterward, and will be forgiven;
Some perpetrators even consider corruption as
an opportunity to do charitable acts, as they
would donate some of the money to charity;
Fear of God's law doesn't mean the fear of state
law. Moreover, punishment for corruptors is
considered light. Also, corruptors able to use
money from corruption to bribe law enforcers;
It’s a tradition for a long time ago;
Indonesians still have a feudal mentality.
Power and property take control;
Religion rituals are an obligation. There's a
belief that people can balance their sins with
good deeds, such as charity, and perform the
pilgrimage. Hence, corruption practices can be
balanced with charity and pilgrimage;
In Christian belief, even during the Jesus era,
corruption already existed. This is because
people love money more than God.
Referring to the literature study, plus netizen's
answers above, it seems that in Indonesia, there is an
unconnected relation between religious rituals and
religion values implementation. Religion becomes an
obligatory ritual, not applicable ideas.
Former Indonesia Vice President, Mohammad
Hatta, ever mentioned that the most important aspect
in eradicating corruption is not merely in the form of
rules or institutions, but based on the strong desire
and firmness of all parties to eradicate corruption
(Kompas, September 23, 1970).
This opinion is still relevant today. There is no
correlation between religion and corruption; for
people understanding toward religion is superficial.
Therefore, it requires an act to repair the condition
and build a connection between the two so that the
role of religion can scrape the seeds of corruption.
5 Conclusions
This paper has a limitation, since the methodology
is a literature review with limited sources of data, plus
supported with a random check for findings
confirmation through twitter. Hopefully, in the future,
more comprehensive research could be conducted.
The result of this study reveals that there is no real
connection between religion/belief and corruption.
Hence, back to the question: why does Indonesia that
is considered as a country of believers, acquire piles
of corruption practices? The answer is: although
people consider themselves as believers who truly
believe in their beliefs, they justify certain corruption
act as common practice and part of the culture.
Since corruption has become ingrained and
developed into a tradition, rely on punishment for the
perpetrators is not sufficient to eradicate it.
In order to eradicate corruption, society needs to
change a habit and culture, and it requires an extra
effort from both the government and society itself.
The authors of this paper recommend authorized
parties to improve religion teachings. Implementation
of religious values, morality, justice, and ethics must
be emphasized in the teachings, instead of merely
concepts and theories.
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