Propaganda in Contemporary Public Relations

Ika K. Idris

Universitas Paramadina

Keywords: Public relations, Propaganda

Abstract: The contemporary theories in public relations—the excellence theory (Grunig & Hunt) and the dialogic theory

(Kent & Taylor)—claim two-way dialog communication as the tenet of the theories. Propaganda, as the

original root of public relations, is refused by both theories. This paper aims to analyze whether any

propaganda elements have survived in both theories and practices nowadays. Investigating propaganda and

public relations concepts propaganda theorist Edward Bernays, three elements are found in public relations'

practices today: ‘manipulation,' ‘goals oriented,' and ‘one-way communication flow.' Despite the ubiquity of

interactive media in public relations practices, propaganda elements are still commonly found, and two-way

dialogic communication in social media is overrated.

1 INTRODUCTION

Public relations as one of the communication

functions of organization, institution, and company

has its root in propaganda. Edward L Bernays, who is

known as the father of modern public relations, also

put a foundation on propaganda theory. His idea of

using the social psychologist approach to molding

people's opinions on propaganda is also a basic

principle in public relations campaigns. Today, public

relations theories have moved in the direction of two-

way dialogic communication and moving away

propaganda. This paper aims to analyze the

propaganda theory in contemporary public relations

theory and whether any elements of propaganda have

survived today. Research in PR communication on

the website and social media is chosen to analyze

because the characteristics of these new media—

interactive, real-time, audience generated content,

and connectedness—provide a bigger opportunity for

two-way dialogic communication rather than

traditional media. Besides, several claims about the

power of social media that have improved public

relations practices could be found in almost every

professional publication today: it could wider the

reach of PR messages, engage the public in two-way

communication, and listen to their voice (Kent &

Taylor, 2010).

The structure of the paper consists of the

propaganda definition, propaganda concept

according to Bernays and how it is different with

public relations, today’s contemporary PR theories—

excellence theory (Grunig & Hunt) and dialogic

theory (Kent & Taylor), current research in

contemporary PR, the analysis on propaganda in

contemporary public relations and the conclusion.

2. LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Defining Propaganda

In principle, propaganda is a persuasion strategy (and

tactic) to change people's opinions, attitudes, and

behaviors by using lies, deception, and hatred.

Propaganda aims to get public support and acceptance

while at the same time, make the public condemn the

opposing party. The history of propaganda can be

drawn from ancient Persian, Rome, India, and

England to the birth of the Catholic Church, the

discovery of the colonies, as well as the ratification of

the U.S Constitution in 1788 (Cutlip & Baker, 2012.

p.71-74).

The massive use of propaganda was not started

until World War I (1914-1918) when both belligerent

and allied countries used propaganda as the third

pressure after military and economic pressure.

Lasswell (1972, p.185-195), in his book Propaganda

Technique in the World War, writes that successful

propaganda depends upon the skillful use of means

under favorable conditions. A means, for him, is

anything which the propagandist can manipulate, and

Idris, I.

Propaganda in Contemporary Public Relations.

DOI: 10.5220/0009400200820089

In Proceedings of the 1st International Conference on Anti-Corruption and Integrity (ICOACI 2019), pages 82-89

ISBN: 978-989-758-461-9

a condition is anything to which the propagandist

must adapt. There are four major objectives of

propaganda in war: to mobilize hatred against the

enemy, to preserve the friendship of allies, to

preserves the friendship of the neutral sides, and to

demoralize the enemies. To achieve the objectives,

propagandists control public opinion by using

significant symbols or to speak more concretely and

less accurately, by stories, rumors, reports, pictures,

and other forms of social communication (p.9).

For the propagandists, mass media is a very

practical means of mass manipulation because its

effects can reach a wide range and large population

(Davis & Baran, 2006, p.75). They also believe that

people are so irrational, illiterate, and gullible and

“needed to be converted for their own good.

According to Lee & Lee (1979, p. 23-24), there

are at least seven techniques of propaganda: "name-

calling, glittering generality, a transfer device,

testimonials, plain folks, card stacking, and

bandwagon." Name-calling is the technique when a

propagandist gives a bad name for an idea, people, or

organization to create hatred toward the object.

Glittering generality uses impressive and eloquent

words in showing the "virtue" of an idea, people, or

organization to create public acceptance and

amazement. Transfer device associates action as part

of a larger cause—church, democracy, or authority.

Testimonial uses a prominent and important person to

give a testimonial or support of the ideas. A plain folk

is a technique where a propagandist justifies his/her

idea in the name "of the people" or the "plain folks."

Card stacking is the technique to present a select part

of the story that uses twisted or false logical argument

in order to make a convincing idea, program, person,

or product. Lastly, the bandwagon is the propagandist

technique to make us "contribute to his cause and

follow the crowd."

According to Black (cited from Baran & Davis,

2006, p.78), there are six techniques that characterize

modern government propaganda on war: 1.) Heavy

reliance on authority/spokesperson figure; 2.) Uses of

unverified abstract representation; 3.) A finalistic

view of people; 4.) Cause-effect relationship; 5.)

Overemphasis/underemphasis of the time

perspective; and 6.) A greater emphasis on conflict.

2.2 Edward Bernays: Career and

Personal Life

After World War I ended, industry expanded, and

new inventions flourished that created mass

consumer products. "There was a need for experts in

advertising, marketing, public relations, and

fundraising" (Cuttlip & Baker, 2012. p. 79). Many

war veterans who gained persuasion and propaganda

skills in the war found a ready market for their talent,

including Edward Bernays (1891-1995).

Before going to Bernays’ conceptualization of

public relations, it is important to know his career and

personal life to understand how he developed the

concept and how his ideas sometimes contradicted

each other. Bernays was born in Vienna, Austria, the

son of Eli Bernays and Anna Freud Bernays (sister of

psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud). Later, Sigmund

Freud married Eli’s sister, making Edward a double-

nephew of the famous man (Cutlip, 1994. p.160-161).

Freud’s works on psychoanalysis later inspired and

appeared in Bernays’ works, specifically by

emphasizing mass psychology as a social control

technique.

His early career was as a Broadway press agent

that attempted to get publicity from many newspapers

in the country. In 1971, when the war broke out,

Bernays joined the Committee on Public Information

(CPI) and served as a technical assistant to Director

of CPI, George Creel. CPI was an independent

agency of the U.S government that sought to

influence public opinion in favor of American

involvement in World War I (Cardwell & Rubin,

2012). Through 80 years of his career, he experienced

public relations work as a press agent, publicist, and

later as a counselor. He was the man who made

Americans eat bananas, American women smoke,

and children wash with Ivory soap (Cutlip, 1994.

p.159-160). He was also the man behind the U.S

campaign as a democratic country, Lithuania's

recognition of independence, and Procter and Gamble

campaign over thirty years.

One PR tactic that he’s known for is the staged

event where he arranged glamorous, shocking, or

sometimes amazing events and press conferences in

order to get publicity and direct people’s attention

away from the “real problem” that the companies or

organizations face. Even his title as ‘the father of

modern public relations” is later suspiciously

analyzed by some scholars in public relations. Cutlip

(1994), Cutlip & Baker (2012) and Moloney (2006)

came to the conclusion that Bernays claimed the title

himself.

2.3 Public Relations Concept

According to Edward Bernays

“Public relations is the attempt, by information,

persuasion, and adjustment, to engineer public

support for an activity, cause, movement, or

institution" (Bernays, 1955, p.3-4). The term ‘public

Propaganda in Contemporary Public Relations

relations' consisted of three ideas: 1.) Information is

given to the public, 2.) Persuasion directed at the

public to modify attitudes and actions, and 3.) Efforts

to integrate the attitudes and actions of an institution

with its public. It is important for the company or

organization to adjust and modify its objective in

order to achieve its goals. PR, he argues, is an

important tool in society that can help individuals or

groups to adjust in everyday life.

Similar to the work of the professional in science,

like doctors and engineers, Bernays (1951) proposed

public relations as the scientific-social engineering

that takes care of "consent, human, and human

relations." He got the idea from the physical sciences

and insisted that what differentiates public relations

from some other work of publicity and press agent are

"the research," the strategies planning, the use of

themes and symbols, and the tactics to be used to meet

the objectives. In Engineering of Consent (1955),

Bernays structures those steps into a pattern that a PR

must precede in his work that serves the same

function as the blueprint in engineer works. The

following pattern is:

1.) Define your objectives, 2.) Research your

publics, 3.) Modify your objectives to reach goals that

research shows are attainable, 4.) Decide on your

strategy, 5.) Set up your themes, symbols, and

appeals, 6.) Blueprint an effective organization to

carry on the activity, 7.) Chart your plan for both

timing and tactics, 8.) Carry out your tactics. (p.9-10)

In the same book, he stresses that PR must match

up the campaign objectives and the storyline (themes

and symbols) with "the fundamental human desires

which can be satisfied by the campaign's success"

(1955, p.16). Bernays said that it is important to

understand human motivations and use it as the

appealing factor of the campaign. In his other book—

Crystallizing Public Opinion—he also emphasizes

the importance of the psychological study of a group

or individual. In order to steer public opinion and get

public acceptance, public relations should know the

“precedent, authority, habit, and all other human

motivation” that influenced their opinion and use it to

modify the messages and the channels.

The perfect example of the pattern is Speak Up for

Democracy (1941), which he considered as the

blueprint in campaigning for American democracy. It

was written in the era of World War II, when the

United States and its allies fought with Germany,

Italy, and Japan. The content of this book is mostly

about the United States' concept of democracy and

how a civilian can live the value of democracy in

his/her daily life. This book contains propaganda

messages from the beginning to the end. Bernays

successfully builds a nuance that democracy is

threatened by communist and totalitarian ideologies,

and it will not survive if Americans do not fight for it.

He wrote the book with a simple, clear, and

persuasive style that even uneducated people could

understand. He built his argument with examples

from the daily life of an American and emphasized

American industries of that time in automobiles,

radios, telephones, and refrigerators. Basically, from

all the examples, he was trying to build the pride of

America as "the most powerful country in the world."

After providing the argument of American pride,

Bernays persuades the readers to fight for the

democracy and provided a guided plan for whoever

wants to "save the US democracy."

The structure of the guidance is quite similar to

the guide book that public relations practitioners

usually prepare for PR campaigns nowadays, whether

the campaign is for commercial or social causes. The

structure of the book consists of background,

arguments, goals, objectives, the intended public and

the contrary public, messages, themes, symbols,

communication channels, media, strategies,

actions/activities, and budget. His attempt in

following the engineering approach when making a

blueprint is to differentiate public relations with other

publicist and muckraking works.

2.4 The Difference between

Propaganda and Public Relations

How Bernays defined how public relations works is

mostly influenced by his understanding and

experiences of propaganda. There are parts in his

writings (1941-1983) where Bernays uses the word

‘propaganda' to refer to the work of public relations

or ‘propagandist' to refer to a PR counsel. Even

though he stresses at the very beginning that

"goodwill" is the goal that differentiates PR from

propaganda, in almost every part of the concept, he

still uses the "engineering of consent" as terminology

to point at PR's works. Engineering consent, he

argues, is related to scientific principles and sits at the

very essence of the democratic process, the freedom

of persuasion, and suggestion. The contradiction of

his idea even stands out when he said, "We reject the

government authoritarianism or regimentation, but

we are willing to be persuaded by the written or

spoken words (Bernays, 1951. p.160)."

Bernays's definition of public relations is,

however, related to propaganda if we look into the

plans he proposed in public relations—resources,

knowledge of the subject, determination of

objectives, and research. Even though he proposes

ICOACI 2019 - International Conference on Anti-Corruption and Integrity

research in public relations actions, all of that

research aims to "persuade" the public and win their

acceptance. There are some propaganda legacies in

his ideas of public relations activities, which are: the

appealing themes of the messages, the powerful

symbols, the creation of news, staged events that

vividly dramatize ideas, and the uses of words,

sounds, and pictures that are carefully organized.

As a public relations professional that gained his

skills from the entertainment industry and

government propaganda, Bernays believes that

there’s a need to steer people’s consent in a

democratic society to supplement the educational

process. In Crystallizing Public Opinion, Bernays

writes that there's a "uniformity of opinion" that the

publics have upon many issues, and their reaction can

be categorized into two perspectives. First, when the

uniformity of opinion is the same that the public

believes, they tend to call it an expression of public

conscience. Second, when it contradicts, they call it

insidious propaganda (p.69). He emphasizes this idea

by saying, "The only difference between

‘propaganda' and ‘education' is the point of view. The

advocacy of what we believe in is education, and the

advocacy of what we don't believe in is propaganda."

A public relations counsel must develop the ability

and skill to estimate group reactions on a large scale.

His work is not only to mold the actions of his client,

but also the public opinion.

In this book, Bernays explains how an individual's

thoughts and actions are shaped, and factors that

influence people's opinions. According to him, an

individual has a tendency to make a stereotype and

judgment, and the less the knowledge one has, the

more intolerant he can be. A public relations counsel

must be able to discredit the old judgment by making

the mass opinion against it or create a new one by

making people favor the idea. This idea of public

relations is a clear definition of propaganda.

Three decades after, in Your Future in a Public

Relations Career, Bernays reflects on his public

relations works and professions. He writes that the

difference between PR and propaganda is in its

function to serve two-way communication (instead of

one-way communication) for public and private

interest. His definition and scope of PR emphasize the

importance of building a relation and mutual

understanding between the organization and its

public, but in further explanation Bernays still refers

to his older idea of PR: as an efforts to integrate

organization’s attitudes and actions with its publics,

to provide information, and to persuade the public to

gain support for the organization.

He also warns about the ethical problem the

profession might encounter, and he stresses that PR

professionals should hold to personal integrity even

before deciding to choose a client. He writes that a PR

practitioner should not accept a client whose business

will bring negative impacts to society, such as a

tobacco company, although Bernays himself once

gave consultation to the American Tobacco Company

in 1928. What is interesting is the mentions an

example of whether to accept a dictatorial

government as a client, and he writes, "My answer is

one should not. This is an ethical decision, not one of

law… It denies the principle of human rights that our

country and society stand for." In fact, his entire

works in the early days were dedicated to giving

advice to U.S. Presidents and governments to win

public support. It seems that he was trying to

distinguish public relations works from propaganda,

but he could not draw a fine line between the two,

except to say that propaganda is one-way

communication, and PR is two-way communication.

The major conclusion of all Bernays's writing

remains that PR has manipulated public opinion in

favor of ideas, values, and policies that an

organization or companies have favored.

Consequences that PR inherited from propaganda are

the manipulation of intended message, one-way

communication flow, and uses of symbols and themes

to appeal to the public emotion instead of factual

content.

3 DISCUSSION

3.1 Public Relations Theory Today

Public relations theories nowadays claim their

function is to serve the company or organization as

well as their stakeholders. There are at least two main

PR theories that claim PR works on dialogue and two-

way symmetrical communications. First is the

‘excellence theory’ of Public Relations (Grunig and

Hunt, 1984), and second is ‘Dialogic Theory of

Public Relations’ (Kent & Taylor, 1998; 2002). The

Excellence model has provided the underlying

paradigm that has dominated much public relations

theory for over 20 years (Phillips & Young, 2009.

p.247).

3.2 The Excellence Theory of Public

Relations

Grunig and Hunt (1984) identified four models of

communication in public relations practices and

Propaganda in Contemporary Public Relations

named it an "excellence model" of PR. Later, Grunig

and Grunig (1992, p.88) claimed the models as the

simplified representation of public relations practice

in reality. The first model is press agentry/publicity in

which PR uses lies and deception in the messages in

order to have their messages published in the news

media. The second one, they called the public

information model in which PR functions as an "in-

house journalist," and their work is to serve

information to the public, especially the media. The

third model is the two-way asymmetrical model,

which PR practices the two-way communication but

only intends to do so to have a more efficient

persuasion. In this model, PR distributes

questionnaires, and other tools to get feedback from

the public and uses the result to make a better message

and approach. The last one is the two-way

symmetrical model, which is indicated by the

engagement and relationship that the organization has

with its publics. In this model, PR uses feedback to

make better policies or regulations for the interest of

both the organization and its publics.

Grunig’s excellence theory has been influencing

scholars in the public relations field and is considered

as the ideal model in contemporary PR. Grunig drew

an intellectual road map that, in its stages, distanced

PR and propaganda and made public relations

intellectually respectable, decently practicable, and

legitimately teachable at public expense in the

ideological and geopolitical circumstances of the

1980s. "He is the most influential thinker about PR

since Bernays" (Moloney, 2006. p.3).

The first three models use asymmetrical

communication that aims to “persuade” the public

and help a company or organization achieve its goals.

According to Moloney, Grunig uses the word

“persuade” as a softer word to substitute for the word

“manipulate.” More recently, Grunig et al. (cited

from Moloney, p.54) have clarified his position by

saying that persuasion has always been part of the

two-way symmetrical model and that persuasion is

not rejected as long as it is symmetrical.

Grunig himself (2009) admits that PR

practitioners, in some ways, are still using the

traditional one-way communication approach in their

digital media. Along with that, contemporary PR

research using ‘excellence models’ shows the same

result. The development of communication

technology makes websites and social media as the

potential place to communicate two-way

interactively. A study in assessing companies’

communication shows that corporations and

nonprofits have strong preferences for using one-way

communication on their web sites. These

organizations primarily rely on a one-way

communications model to convey information online,

as public information and press agentry statistically

was used more often than two-way asymmetry and

two-way symmetry (Waters & Lemanski, 2011).

However, both groups moderately incorporated two-

way communication practices, as corporations were

more likely to use two-way research practices, and

nonprofits were more likely to engage in

conversations online. A study in social media using

the ‘excellence model' also shows that organizations

are “primarily using Twitter as a means of sharing

information instead of relationship building and pure

symmetry was the least used model” (Water & Jamal,

2011).

3.3 The Dialogic Theory of Public

Relations

Kent and Taylor's dialogic theory of public relations

(2002) emphasizes public relations dialogue in order

to build a relationship between an organization and its

public, especially through the World Wide Web.

They state that there are five features that a dialogic

communication has: Mutuality, or the recognition of

organization–public relationships; propinquity, or the

temporality and spontaneity of interactions with

publics; empathy, or the supportiveness and

conﬁrmation of public goals and interests; risk, or the

willingness to interact with individuals and public on

their own terms; and ﬁnally, commitment, or the

extent to which an organization gives itself over to

dialogue, interpretation, and understanding in its

interactions with public. (p.25-29).

In websites, PR can cultivate the dialogic

communication by providing useful information,

making a website’s interface easy to direct the public

to the information, maintaining website features,

generating return visits, and creating “dialogic

feedback loops” which allow publics to give their

feedback to the organization and get an organization's

response in return (Spooner, 2009). Kent & Taylor

(2002) argue that dialogic communication is a

theoretical framework as well as practices guideline

that public relations can use to do honest and ethical

work. The implementation of the theory can be done

from "the interpersonal, the mediated, and the

organizational" level of relationship. Further, on

research on a corporate blog, Kent (2008) found that

effective dialogic communication through new media

required sufficient knowledge and a trained public

relations officer, as well as an intention to build trust

with the public. Anonymous posts or comments in an

ICOACI 2019 - International Conference on Anti-Corruption and Integrity

attempt to manipulate the audience will not create a

relationship.

Current research on public relations

communication through social media using ‘the

dialogic theory’ shows that conversation is built

mostly to provide information and to get public

attention. Botree & Seltzer's (2009) studies on

advocacy groups' communication on Facebook

reveals that "dialogic outcomes are correlated with

three dialogic strategies—conservation of members,

generation of return visits, and organization

engagement.” Their communication strategies do not

build mutually beneﬁcial relationships with

stakeholders. The same one-way communication

flow is also found in Waters et al. (2011) study on U.S

universities’ health centers’ Facebook accounts. In

fact, they are mostly using Facebook pages as “an

extension of the web site or using it as a calendar to

publicize upcoming events.” The conversation

between the organization and its public is only to

provide useful information and conserving visitors.

Briones et al., (2011) study on the American Red

Cross social media infers that the challenge in

building dialogue and relationships on social media is

related to the staff resources and the time they spend

on using social media. The other challenge is how to

assure the organization management about the

importance of social media in two-way

communication and building the relationship. In the

government sector, Soon & Soh's (2014) study on

Singapore government communications reveals the

challenges in dialogic communication are the

commitment (time and resources) to pursue a dialogic

communication with citizens and the evaluation

method of assessing public engagement on specific

issues.

3.4 The elements of Propaganda in

Contemporary Public Relations

In his attempt to define public relations, Bernays,

could not help but refer to the propaganda concept.

There are at least three propaganda elements that can

be found in the Bernays PR concept. First, the

‘manipulation' element could be found in the aim to

engineer public support, staged events, modification

of communication channels, and emotional appeals to

the messages. Second, the ‘adaptation to the condition

to achieve its goals’ element could be found in PR

research and well-planned intention. Third, the ‘one-

way communication flow' element could be found in

the PR approach in using mass media. He confirmed

the propaganda concept by saying that the only

difference between "propaganda" and "education" is

the point of view.

The development of PR theories towards two-way

mutual dialogic communication is represented by the

‘excellence theory' and the ‘dialogic theories of PR.

Scholars who hold this paradigm dissociate

‘manipulation' elements of propaganda in their

definition of "ideal" public relations. They also create

new terminologies such as ‘two-way asymmetrical,'

‘two-way symmetrical,' and ‘dialogue' to separate the

‘one-way communication flow' element. Grunig, an

emeritus university professor and a former PR

practitioner, even carried out several research and

publications to prove that two-way symmetrical

communication is performed by organizations and

companies and is not just an ideal condition

(Moloney, 2006. p.54).

However, current research in public relations

communication using both theories has shown a gap

between normative theories and practices. Claims of

social media as powerful and effective tools in two-

way dialogic communication are overrated because

there's not enough evidence to support it. Conversely,

current research shows that the majority of social

media use is to provide information, which is

nonetheless a one-way communication tool. The

manipulation element lies in the press agentry model

when PR uses websites and social media as an

extension of calendar events, publicity, and

conversation to maintain return visits. The last

element, the well-planned intention, lies in the PR

strategic plans to achieve goals and objectives. The

challenges that obviate two-way dialogic

communication are related to PR practitioners’

perception of the profession, PR competencies, and

the organization’s intentions.

Although the development of PR theory has tried

to leave the propaganda elements behind, the

practices of PR are strongly influenced by

propaganda; thus, it's too difficult to distinguish them.

In a government context, it will be more difficult and

complicated to draw a line between non-partisan

public relations and a propaganda apparatus (Ni,

2003; Gelders & Ihlen, 2010). The only difference is

PR now is doing the "talk" or "conversation," making

interaction, and responding to the issues against them.

After decades of developments, "PR, eventually, is

weak propaganda (Moloney, 2006)."

4 CONCLUSIONS

Bernays's definition of public relations eventually is

not different from public propaganda. This is not

Propaganda in Contemporary Public Relations

surprising as he gained knowledge and persuasion

skills from the entertainment industry and

government propaganda. The main idea of public

relations is to mold public opinion and behaviors by

manipulating a human’s basic motives and desires.

Besides manipulations, other propaganda elements in

Bernay’s concept of PR are the well-planned

intention and one-way communication flow.

Propaganda legacies in Bernays' ideas of public

relations are the appealing themes of the messages,

the powerful symbols, the creation of news, staged

events that vividly dramatize ideas, and the uses of

words, sounds, and pictures that are carefully

organized.

In contemporary public relations, scholars such as

James Gunn, Michal Kent, and Maureen Taylor have

conceptualized PR communication into two-way

mutual dialogic communication. Unfortunately, the

models are still normative because current research

has shown a lack of two-way dialogic communication

in PR practices nowadays, specifically in the website

and social media platforms.

In conclusion, three fundamental elements in

public relations—manipulation, well-planned

intention, and one-way communication flow—are

still found and commonly practiced in public relations

today.

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