Language Dimension and Grammar Components in Textbooks

Sintowati Rini Utami

, Emzir

, Ninuk Lustyantie

Indonesian Language and Literary Education, Universitas Negeri Jakarta

Language Education, School of Postgraduate Program, Universitas Negeri Jakarta

Keywords: language dimension, grammatical component, scientific or linguistic grammar, pedagogical grammar

Abstract: This study aims to identify the language dimensions contained in textbooks. The language dimensions

studied were viewed from the linguistic aspects which included phonological, morphological, syntactic,

semantic, and discourse grammatical components. Various grammar components were formulated based on

the Indonesian Grammar Model which was included in scientific or linguistics grammar, educational

grammar models in pedagogical grammar, as well as studies on various grammatical dimension theories.

This research was conducted in the frame of a qualitative approach using content analysis techniques on

written discourses in the form of teaching materials with a focus on aspects of the grammatical components

developed in Indonesian Junior High School textbooks. Through intensive reading and writing abstractions

that identified the existence of grammatical forms, there were five aspects that were explicitly identified in

the textbook, namely the grammatical, phonological, morphological, syntactic, and semantic components.

Meanwhile, the grammar component of discourse was implicitly identified. Phonological aspects included

the study of speech sounds, namely how sounds are produced (phonetic studies) and how sounds are

symbolized (phonemic studies). Morphological aspects related to word formation both related to various

morphological processes and word classes. Syntactic aspects included parts of sentence units, sentence

functions, and sentence intonation, while semantic aspects related to aspects of meaning. Individually and

simultaneously, aspects of the grammar component found were applications in building communicative

competence. Standard aspects of pronunciation, form of word classes and fixation processes, arrangement of

compound sentences or passive sentences, use of correct diction, use of cohesion in creating paragraphs,

texts, and discourse were used to produce effective sentences in communication. The findings of the

research are recommended in the context of developing and stabilizing educational grammar as well as

being input in designing and preparing Indonesian textbooks.

1 INTRODUCTION

Some time ago, language lessons were faced with

the choice of whether to focus on teaching the use of

language or would focus on teaching the form of

language ‘... or whether one learns to communicate

in a second language by learning the lexicogramma;

the words and grammatical structures, of the target

language ... " (Gao, Celce-Murcia, & Larsen-

Freeman, 2000). That is, opinions about how

language teaching must be done to improve

language skills must also be based on the fact that

people who want to learn languages need

information about the form of language, namely the

form of words and grammar, and how to use the

form of language in communication. Students will

certainly choose and take the form of language

needed to smoothly communicate.

In order to express or understand language,

people will form a system that connects the language

they hear with their meaning. Traditionally, it is

referred to as language grammar (Waterhouse, Clark,

& Clark, 1979). This agreement is understood as a

rule that gives a prescriptive picture of what is

considered as "correct grammar or rules". This

understanding is what guides a person in finding

sentences that are considered true. These elements

have a very important role in the process of human

thought and the expression of the results of his

thinking in the form of language, both oral and

written (Mahmudi, 2016).

The description of the agreement shows that

grammar is a description and human cognition. This

is in line with the views of philosophers and

636

Utami, S., Emzir, . and Lustyantie, N.

Language Dimension and Grammar Components in Textbooks.

DOI: 10.5220/0009036806360643

In Proceedings of the International Conference on Education, Language and Society (ICELS 2019), pages 636-643

ISBN: 978-989-758-405-3

linguists about the study of language itself "with the

study of language, its structure and function". They

argue that in language there is structure; and

structure becomes a picture or law of how people

think. This thinking is in line with Chomsky's

opinion about LAD (Language Acquisation Device)

that there is a set of rules in the human mind that

controls people who speak or understand language.

So, the rules of language or grammar are

psychological facts in every human mind and there

is mastery of those rules for functional use (Gao et

al., 2000). Because grammar is the structure of

language, the grammatical process is a procedure for

people to express and understand language.

Murcia and Freeman formulated that the

grammar in the language used included three levels,

namely the morphological level (subsentential), the

syntactic level (sentential), and the level of discourse

(suprasentential) (Waterhouse et al., 1979). Clark

and Clark add that the concept of grammar is a

system that connects sound and meaning: "..... a

system that relates sounds to meaning (Lubis, 1993).

Besides, (Hartman &Stork,1972:22) asserted "A

linguistic unit abstracted from a continuum of

speech or text e.g. phone or phoneme as the smallest

sound unit or morpheme as the smallest unit of

grammar"(Masoer Pateda, 1991).

Chomsky added that in the 'grammatical rules'

there are grammatical rules for handling three main

aspects of language: phonology, syntax, and

semantics. The rules contained in phonology are the

sounds and their structure; the rules contained in

syntax are the way words combine to form

sentences, and the rules in semantics are the

meaning of words and sentences. So, grammar is a

three-dimensional engagement that is referred to by

linguistics, namely (morpho) syntactic, semantic,

and pragmatic which represent the dimensions of

form, meaning, and dimensions of usage.

Based on the development of the grammatical

concepts, the linguistic dimension in the language

textbook can be determined. In addition to the scope

of the linguistic dimension, aspects of grammar in

Indonesian language textbooks also consider

Indonesian grammar models and concepts of

educational grammar. According to Yus Rusyana and

Samsuri, the Indonesian grammar model was formed

from various linguistic developments, namely:

traditional grammar, structural grammar,

transformational grammar, and functional grammar.

These linguistic developments were applied in

Indonesian studies and formed an Indonesian

grammar model.

Traditional grammar applied in 'Indonesian

Grammar' Sutan Takdir Alisyahbana (1981) includes

the study of morphemes and forms of words

(morphology), as well as sentence structure (syntax)

(Rusyana & Samsuri, 1983). In addition, the study of

words in the field of morphology discusses basic

words, repeated words, and compound words

(Rusyana & Samsuri, 1983). The division of

Indonesian sentences according to traditional

grammar is (a) single sentences and compound

sentences, (b) equivalent compound sentences and

multilevel compound sentences, (c) densely

compound sentences, (d) predicated sentences with

verbs and predicates without verbs, (e) sentence

based on content: news, question, order,

exclamation, (f) sentence based on clause relation.

Sentences are defined as the smallest set of words

that contain complete thoughts (Rusyana & Samsuri,

1983).

Structural Grammar in Slamet Mulyana's

Indonesian Language Rules (1961) includes the

classification of words, word structure and structure

of phrases and sentences (Rusyana & Samsuri,

1983). The grammar model is built based on its

structure which is analyzed based on its segments

and distribution (Masoer Pateda, 1991). Gorys Keraf

divides the structural grammar outline consisting of

(a) phonology, (b) determination of word types, (c)

formation of words, (d) formation of phrases, and (e)

formation of sentences.

Transformational generative grammar was

pioneered by Noam Chomsky with the Syntactic

Structure in 1957. According to Samsuri (1985),

examples of the application of transformational

views are found in Indonesian Sentences (Masoer

Pateda, 1991). Transformation analysis confirms the

existence of certain grammatical rules that are

comprehensive and can produce grammatical

sentences and involve meaning in grammatical

analysis of language (Alwasilah, 1993). Grammar

consists of three components: (1) syntactic

component, (2) semantic component, (3)

phonological component. So, it does not only give

sentence structure but also give an explanation of the

mechanism of sentence formation as a structure born

from an inner structure.

Functional grammar regards syntax as a system

based on semantics. The main characteristic of

functional grammar is to give an important role at

the semantic, syntactic, and pragmatic level (Masoer

Pateda, 1991), and is intended to explain how

language is used (Halliday). Every element in a

language is explained in terms of its function in the

whole language system (Castro & Halliday, 1995).

The application of grammar from various

Language Dimension and Grammar Components in Textbooks

637

developments in linguistic flow is not all determined

as a grammatical model in language teaching.

Spolsky (1978: 1-2), as Kaplan and Grabe put it,

includes grammar for teaching as part of applied

linguistics (Kaplan & Grabe, 1991).

Walls in Els, et al. (1977: 25) asserts "applied

linguistics refers to the use of language teachers of

the findings of the linguist '. For example the

development of language forms exercises that are

decontextualized in the context of sentences and

discourse (Tomlinson, 2007).

According to Murcia-Freeman, educational

grammar intended for teachers is eclectic (Gao et al.,

2000). The foundations of linguistics that are

considered suitable for developing educational

grammar are traditional linguistics, structural

linguistics, and transformational linguistics

(Nurhadi, 1995). The Indonesian grammar model is

arranged according to a terms of reference in the

form of Indonesian grammar guidelines written by

Indonesian grammar to express the characteristics

and rules of the Indonesian language (Rusyana &

Samsuri, 1983). Language level includes phonology,

morphology, syntax, and semantics (Lestari, 2015).

So, the level of analysis of grammar figures in

Indonesian junior high school textbooks is seen in

all aspects of the scope of education after the

grammar of education includes the rules in the

phonology component, morphological component,

syntactic component, and discourse component.

Phonology is defined as a branch of linguistics

that identifies the basic units of language as sound

(Verhaar, 2010). Phonological aspects include the

study of speech sounds, namely how sounds are

produced (phonetic studies), and how sounds are

symbolized. With symbolism, meaning can be

distinguished in the form of pronunciation and in the

form of grapheme (phonemic studies). Phonetic

science deals with the relationships formed between

language sounds and syllables, stress groups, pause

groups, and rhetorical periods that form

phonological hierarchy. (Pike, 1982), while

phonemic analysis deals with phonemes, graphemes

and suprasegmentals. Sounds in Indonesian are also

familiar with diphthongs and consonant groups, also

have suprasegmental characteristics in the form of

pressure, sound length, and tone (Alwi, 1998).

Phonemic transcriptions of Indonesian sounds are

symbolized in Indonesian graphemes and spellings.

Morphology, also called 'the study of form', is a

branch of linguistics that identifies the basic units of

language as grammatical units. In grammatical

hierarchy, morphological studies include morphemes

and words (Verhaar, 2010). … The following are

some of the entries that deal with aspects of

morphology : morpheme, root and stem, affix,

grammar units, word classes, noun, pronoun,

adjective, deteminer, verb, preposition, conjunction,

adverb, interjection’ (Stern, 2001). that study the

intricacies of word forms as well as grammatical and

semantic functions resulting from changes in the

form of words (Ramlan, 1983). Through various

morphological processes, namely: zero deviation,

affixation, reduplication, abrevation, composition

(combination) (Kridalaksana, 2010) which forms

certain grammatical meanings and forms part of

speech according to their grammatical meaning,

such as verbs, adjectives, nouns, pronouns,

numeralia, adverbs, interrogativa, demonstrative,

articulation, prepositions, conjunctions, phatic

categories, and interjection (Kridalaksana, 2005).

Syntax deals with grammatical structures that

deal with grammar between words, in speech; it

means to discuss grammatical relationships between

words in sentences (Kridalaksana, 2005). In

addition, the grammatical structure of sentences in

the syntactic structure is also built by the syntactic

tool such as intonation (Kridalaksana, 2005).

Intonation in speech takes the form of declarative,

interrogative, and imperative sentences, as well as

intonation in topic-comment relations (Halim, 1974).

Meanwhile, various grammatical relationships of

Indonesian sentences produce classifications of basic

sentences, active-passive sentences, single-

compound sentences, direct-indirect sentences,

transitive-intransitive sentences, verb-nonverb

sentences, major sentences of minor sentences

(Alwi, 1998). Inaccuracies that interfere with

grammar can produce ineffective sentences. Various

forms due to errors (a) impractical thought, (b)

diction, and (3) due to spelling mistakes (Sugono,

2009) which can be judged as ineffective sentences

other than errors in the preparation of sentences that

are not grammatical.

Semantics with the meaning as the object, is in

all levels, namely in the phonological,

morphological, and syntactic levels. (Chaer, 2010).

According to Tagmemics, (Pike & Pike, 1977) the

hierarchy of meaning explains levels of meaning

within grammatical levels (Soepamo, 2002). In

morphology, it has morphological semantics and in

syntax it has syntactic semantics (Mansoer Pateda,

2010). Semantic in the strict sense (Tarigan, 2009)

relates to the study of various types of meanings, the

relationship of meanings, and changes in meaning.

Types of meanings include lexical-grammatical

meaning, denotation-connotation meaning,

conceptual meaning, association meaning,

ICELS 2019 - International Conference on Education, Language, and Society

638

referential meaning, as well as the meaning of

expressions and proverbs. Interrelationship refers to

synonymy, antonymy, hyponymy, homonymy,

polysemy, and ambiguous meanings. Changes in

meaning regarding the expansion of meaning and

weaken / narrow the meaning (Mansoer Pateda,

2010). Various uses of various types and

relationships of meaning and function in the

Indonesian language with regard to strategies to

expand vocabulary and selection of words that are

appropriate to the function, meaning, and accuracy

of using words (diction).

Discourse is the most complete set of languages,

is higher than clauses and sentences, has good

cohesion and coherence, has clear and continuous

beginning and end, and can be delivered verbally or

in writing. Discourse depends on the integrity of the

elements of meaning and the context that surrounds

it (HP, 2012). To create a discourse that has

complete unity there must be a close relationship.

According to Halliday (1976) the relationship

forming the discourse is a marker of texture. Texture

is something that shows something that binds

between sentences so that it becomes a discourse or

text. The texture is characterized by close (cohesive)

or integrated relations formed by (a) references, (b)

substitution, (c) ellipses, (d) conjunctions, and (e)

Iexical. Discourse analysis also discusses the

background of a speech (text) as a complete

language unit. Furthermore, Teun A Van Dijk

explained that the study of discourse or discourse

was related to the text and context. Gillian Brown

mentioned that every approach to analysis in

linguistics that includes consideration of context

includes the pragmatic field.

Pragmatics examines discourse accompanied by

speech background (text) (Brown & Yule, 1996).

Included in pragmatic studies are word acts relating

to the principle of conversation, also studies of

politeness (Tarigan, 2008). Discourse analysis that

starts from the aspect of language function or

examines what language is used like language

function to express (transactional function) and

language function involved in expressing social

relations and personal attitudes (interactional

function) (Tarigan, 2008). In the view of Gillian Brown and

George Yule, discourse analysis departs in terms of language

function; Discourse analysis involves language functions. Based

on the responses of speech partners, it is classified into

transactional and interactional discourse. Based on the

presentation it is classified on various forms of composition such

as narrative, expository, descriptive, and procedural discourse

(Kushartanti, Yuwono, & Multamia, 2005). Thus, the discourse

component covers the conditions of discourse / conditions of

harmony between elements, both form relationships (cohesion)

and relationships of meaning (coherence), relations in discourse

can be formed by reference, substitution, ellipse, conjunction,

and lexical; and pragmatics of language.

2 METHODOLOGY

This research was designed within the framework of

a qualitative approach. Research into grammar

dimensions in this textbook is approached in the

context of finding (context of discovery) on patterns

of grammatical dimensions not approached for

context of verification. According to Miller and

Brewer, content analysis is the process of describing

and analyzing text, and to present its contents

through 'enumeration' and the calculation of word

frequency and qualitative assessment of words and

terms used (Miller & Brewer, 2003). Content

analysis relates to a systematic review of a record or

document (Sing, 2006). Also, it is an intellectual

process in categorizing the same textual data or

conceptual categories to identify consistent patterns

and relationships between variables or themes

(Julian, 2008).

This research method uses qualitative content

analysis techniques, namely to understand the

symbolic messages of an object of research. This

method analyzes data as symbolic communication

(Krippendorf, 2008). Basically, it is empirically

oriented, explanatory, related to symptoms, and

predictive in nature. This study was designed with

stages (a) establishing focus, (b) formulating the

problem by submitting research questions, (c)

collecting data, (d) analyzing and interpreting the

data (Emzir, 2010).

Analyzing data as symbolic units is carried out

on symbolic messages in the form of grammatical

aspects in Indonesian textbooks. The content and

communication aspects of grammar will be

categorized and classified.

Operationally, this research uses the basic

principles of content analysis as stated by Mayring

(Mayring, 2011) with step (1) establishing as the

focus of the study; (2) asking research questions; (3)

explains aspects in the linguistic dimension studied

based on relevant theories; (4); make categories

from each research sub-focus; (5) encode data in the

form of text / discourse analysis based on research

sub-focus; (6) revising and conducting checks,

theories and methods related to data validity, (7)

analyzing research data while conducting data

validity; (8) integrating the results of research

analysis.

Language Dimension and Grammar Components in Textbooks

639

3 FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION

3.1 Phonology aspects

Phonological aspects in Indonesian junior high

school textbooks include phonetic aspects (48.72%)

and phonemic aspects (51.28%). Information on

segmental phonetic aspects was obtained including

phonics (vowels, consonants, diphthongs, consonant

groups) 47.37%, syllables 21.05% and

suprasegmental 31.58%. Information on phonemic

aspects related to standard pronunciation is 65%,

and grapheme is 35%. Of the three phonetic aspects

that are widely presented in Indonesian junior high

school textbooks are segmental aspects in the form

of vowels, consonants, diphthongs, and consonant

groups. The pronunciation is related to the

articulation and clarity of the pronunciation of

vowels, consonants, diphthongs, and consonant

groups. The emphasis of the phonemic aspect is how

the sounds distinguish meaning. Data on phonemic

aspects in Indonesian junior high school textbooks

emphasize the standard pronunciation and

grapheme.

With the findings of the data, phonemic aspects

were developed as much as 51.28%, explaining that

in Indonesian junior high school textbooks

phonemic problems, especially standard

pronunciation, were more emphasized. There seems

to be a high level of awareness for the authors of the

book, the importance of ability, mastery and

standard pronunciation skills in language. The

standard pronunciation is related to the

pronunciation that considers the presence or absence

of differences in meaning due to pronunciation.

Incorrect pronunciation will cause a response to the

interlocutor so that communication is disrupted, and

in written communication will cause graphological

errors that have an impact on writing letters or

graphemes.

3.2 Aspek Morfologi

Morphological aspects in Indonesian junior high

school textbooks are mostly related to

morphological processes which include affixation

(42.37%), reduplication (3.39%), composition

(1.69%), abbreviations (6.78%), and classes words

(45.76%). The affixation process can also be seen as

a creative process in language. The resulting formed

words are mostly intended for the formation of

certain word classes. The findings data show a lot of

affixation processes that appear, namely affixes me-

(N) to form verb / work and confix word classes (pe-

an), and confix (ke-an) to form noun / noun word

classes. Other formation results are also obtained

from the use of the affixes me-(N) related to the

formation of the class of verbs (transitive /

intransitive).

Overall, the findings of the morphological

aspects were emphasized on the formation of word

classes (45.76%) followed by affixation (42.37%).

This seems to be considered important to be

presented and is more emphasized than other aspects

of morphology. It is hoped that by mastering aspects

of word class formation through the process of

affixation students will be trained to creatively form

new words based on existing basic words.

3.3 Aspek Sintaksis

The syntactic aspects in Indonesian junior high

school textbooks include sentence parts, sentence

functions, sentence intonation, and effective

sentences. The findings of this study indicate the

syntactic aspects presented in Indonesian Junior

High School textbooks include sentence parts

(syntactic units), sentence functions, and sentence

intonation. Language units fill in the syntax

functions of sentences which include phrases

(3.03%), clauses (15.15%) and sentences (81.82%).

Furthermore, sentences include 48.15% compound

sentences, 29.63% passive active sentences, 14.81%

verbal / non verbal sentences, and 4.41% transitive /

intransitive sentences. So, syntactic units of

language sentences that fill sentence part 35.87% is

the most syntactic aspect that appears. Meanwhile,

the least syntactic aspect that appears is the sentence

function 10.87%.

The syntactic units in question are phrases,

clauses and sentences. From the three syntactic

units, the Findings showed 82.76% explained the

syntactical unit in the form of sentences including

the structure of sentence structure (single /

compound), active / passive sentences, verbal /

nonverbal sentences, transitive verbal sentences and

intransitive verbal sentences. Compound sentences

that indicate equality and grading, and conjunctors

that state the meaning of adding, adding or

combining meaning, are detailed in the book.

Regarding the types of sentences in the form of a

single sentence, both positive and negative forms as

well as active and passive sentences is also

presented in the book. The data shows material

exposure about the use of the "no" negation form,

for the verb predicate or the adjective predicate and

the "no" negation form for expressing nouns or

objects. Furthermore, the findings about active

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sentences are also presented material with verbs

predicate markers beginning with me- and passive

sentences with verbs predicate markers beginning

with di-.

The finding of the sentence part with regard to

the syntactic unit of the sentence is more dominant

(35.87%) than the aspects of the syntax function,

sentence intonation, and effective sentence. There

are data findings of sentence syntax units as the most

findings, followed by many findings about sentence

intonation as a study of syntax tools (33, 70%). This

showed in the creativity of composing sentences also

take into account the type of sentence based on

intonation / sentence mode. This means that the

sentence is an important aspect both in terms of

structure and type.

3.4 Aspek Semantik

Semantic aspects in Indonesian junior high school

textbooks include the types of meanings (29.37%),

the relationship of meaning (17.57%), diction (50%),

and shifts and changes in meaning (2.70%). The

finding data about the types of meanings included

lexical / grammatical 13.64%, connotation /

denotation meaning 4.55%, contextual meaning

4.55%, term meaning 31.82%, and utterance

meaning / proverb 45.55%. Semantic aspects of the

types of meaning are found lexical words and terms

in the dictionary, the meaning of words as terms of

absorption elements, the use of speech in proverbs

and expressions. Aspects of the meaning of the

relationship found meaning synonyms 46.15%,

antonyms 23.08%, homonyms 15.38%, and

polysemous 15.38%.

In the book the term material is given to students

a lot (31.82%) which is expected that students

explore and explore the meanings / terms then

compared with the meanings in the dictionary

intended to expand the vocabulary. The meanings of

idioms / dominant proverbs are explained in

Indonesian junior high school textbooks in the form

of meanings contained in metaphors.

Data findings about the relationship of meaning

in the Junior High School Indonesian Language

textbooks include synonymy, antonym, homonym

and polysemous. The most dominant synonymy data

findings developed (46.15%) are assumed to assist

students in mastering and developing the ability to

understand and use vocabulary in the context of

understanding several related meanings.

The finding of diction aspect in semantic aspect

was the most dominant (50.00%). The diction or

choice of words found in the Indonesian textbooks

for junior high school is related to the choice of

words based on the types of meanings, the

relationship of meanings and changes in meaning, as

well as choices that meet the principles of

appropriateness in the use of sentences, harmony, as

well as those that support the politeness of language

in communication. It can be interpreted that the

word choice material leads to the focus of

vocabulary development.

3.5 Discourse aspects

Aspects of discourse in Indonesian junior high

school textbooks include coherence and paragraph

development (61.19%), types of discourse (19.40%),

and pragmatic discourse (19.40%). The development

of discourse by paying attention to these three

aspects creates communicative language use. The

findings of cohesion and coherence aspects include a

reference of 7.32%, conjunction 26.83%, and

paragraph 65.85%. The findings of the cohesion

aspect are intended as a form of cohesion, and

coherence is interpreted as a form of integrity of

meaning (proposition). Data on cohesion and

coherence are extracted through grammatical

markers (references, substitution, ellipsis, and

conjunctions) and lexical markers.

Data regarding types of discourse obtained

information that the type of discourse was 61.54%,

composition 23.08%, and type of announcement text

15.38%. Pragmatic data discourse found politeness

aspects namely communicative language which is a

language that is easily understood 90% and the

principle of cooperation 10%.

The language politeness as the most pragmatic

aspect is described in discourse material (90, 00%).

Pragmatic phenomena in the discourse presented in

the book do not appear as explicit figures, such as in

the form of communicative and interactive dialogue

or speech.

4 CONCLUSIONS

The grammatical aspects of the Indonesian Junior

High School Textbook include phonology,

morphology, syntax, discourse, and semantic

components. From these two aspects of phonology

the emphasis is on standard pronunciation. The

material on this pronunciation is considered

important because improper pronunciation will

cause a response to the interlocutor so that

communication is disrupted, and in written

communication will cause graphological errors. The

Language Dimension and Grammar Components in Textbooks

641

emphasis of morphological aspects in Indonesian

junior high school textbooks is on the formation of

words and word classes with morphological

processes, especially affixation. The most common

word classes are verbs and nouns.

Among the syntactic units of words, phrases,

clauses and sentences, the sentence is an aspect of

the syntactic unit that is commonly found in

Indonesian junior high school. Sentence structure,

changing sentence structure, including active

sentences to passive and vice versa, are many found

in Indonesian junior high school. The semantic

aspect concerns the lexical and grammatical

meaning of lexical meanings; the emphasis is on

word choice (diction).

Aspects of discourse that are found in Indonesian

Junior High School are cohesion and coherence and

pragmatics of discourse. In terms of cohesion and

coherence, there are many markers of discourse

cohesion, such as conjunction, referral, substitution,

and ellipsis. Pragmatic findings of discourse, the

emphasis is on politeness of language that is adapted

to the context of the situation where the

communication process takes place.

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