Civil Society and the Guardian of Multiculturalism:

Understanding Banser’s Role in the ‘Swadaya’ Society

Hamdani

and Zamroni

Universitas Islam Negeri Syarif Hidayatullah Jakarta, Indonesia

Graduate Program of University of Nahdlatul Ulama Indonesia (UNUSIA) Jakarta, Indonesia

Keywords: Banser, civil society, swadaya, multiculturalism, minority groups.

Abstract: The element of civil society in Indonesian social and political structure has distinct features compared to

Western experience. Since non-state agents have played a significant role in forging the direction of

democratic and multicultural system, social and political actions of mass organizations and their supporting

units, it shows important contributions of the efforts of guarding multicultural society. This study examines

the social and political role of Banser (Barisan Ansor Serbaguna/Ansor Multipurpose Unit) in the maintenance

of multiculturalism and protection of religious minority groups from any disturbance of intolerant groups.

This study attempts to capture the ideas and practices of Banser agents in the changing Indonesian social and

political constellation in the post-New Order regime, particularly its role in escorting Christian churches

during Christmas celebrations and other holy days. Instead of being trained with military skills and weapons,

this security unit of Nahdlatul Ulama who relies on the traditional technique of self-defense in the world of

pesantren and having a relax style of securing events and places. This study emphasizes on the quest of

original concept and practice concerning the imagined duty of security by civilian under the idea of ‘swadaya'

and ‘gotong-royong' which has a deep root among Indonesian society.

1 INTRODUCTION

The new democratic system adopted by various

countries indicates a different pattern of

implementation. The modern ideas, values, and

practices have challenged the old social and cultural

system under the contested and negotiated pattern of

dialectic. The interplay of traditional and modern

mindset among social and political actors has lasted

in various forms. (Inglehart, R and Welzel, C. 2005)

The relations between the state and civil society in the

wax and wane pattern of Indonesian political

atmosphere has fostered elements of civilian groups

who have a concern in participating in the security

issue. One of popular elements is the Banser (Barisan

Ansor Serbaguna/ Ansor Multipurpose Unit) who

becomes an interesting manifestation of the

traditional force of Muslim organization in taking part

of securing religious events and also guarding

churches in the post-Suharto era. This research

focuses on three aspects: (1). Examining the role of

Banser of Nahdlatul Ulama (NU) in maintaining

multiculturalism, (2) capturing relations between

state and civil society in Indonesia's modern nation-

state (3) explicating the complexity of the traditional

and modern structure of Indonesian society dealing

with civilian participation in the security system.

These interrelated aspects become important

guideline of discussion.

2 LITERATURE REVIEW

The study of Banser as a peace keeping force for

minority groups has not been conducted yet by

scholars of social and political sciences. Most of them

focused on Banser’s role dealing with violence on the

eradication of Indonesian communist (G30SPKI)

movement in 1960s and other Banser’s role in an

inhumane impression. One of scholars who critically

1614

Hamdani, . and Zamroni, .

Civil Society and the Guardian of Multiculturalism: Understanding Banser’s Role in the ‘Swadaya’ Society.

DOI: 10.5220/0009932716141620

In Proceedings of the 1st International Conference on Recent Innovations (ICRI 2018), pages 1614-1620

ISBN: 978-989-758-458-9

studied on Banser is Ihsan Ali-Fauzi (2008) in his

article Religion, Politics and Violence in Indonesia:

Learning From Banser's Experience’ (Fauzi, 2008).

By means of historical approach, he constructed the

history of Banser as the paramilitary group using

violence under the control of religious and political

elite of Nahdlatul Ulama (NU). Fauzi ignored the role

of Banser in the post Gus Dur’s leadership which has

seriously taken part in securing churches and having

commitment to maintain multiculturalism. In the

social and political movement of anti-communist

killings, most researchers also do not pay attention to

the political context and the serious efforts of

nahdliyyin (NU people) to rehabilitate communist

people regardless the stigma which is still attached to

them.

Another research which pertains the role of

Banser in the violence of anti-communist conducted

by Hermawan Sulistyo, Palu Arit di Ladang Tebu

(History of forgotten mass-killings 1965-1966).

(Sulistyo, 2000) Although it does not specifically

discuss the existence of Banser, the argument of

Sulistyo has similar standing point with other scholars

who put Banser as one of important elements in the

1960s anti-communist killings. This historical study

has thorougly identified the role of Banser in the dark

history of Indonesia political transition from the Old

to New Order regime. However, it has a significant

weakness particularly on the ignorance of changing

ethos of Banser in the post-Gus Dur era.

The comprehensive research on Banser,

fortunately, has been conducted by Hairus Salim

under the title: ‘Kelompok Paramiliter NU

(Paramilitary group of NU)’ (Salim, 2004). By means

of ethnographic method, Salim succesfully describes

the continuity and change of Banser in the changing

social and political constellation. By the concept of

‘memory’ and ‘imagination’, Salim put Banser as

organisation which perceives the importance of

paramilitary group in the NU (Nahdlatul Ulama)

organisation and pesantren to maintain their interest

and purpose supported by selected, young, strong and

militant actors. Although he does not sufficiently

elaborate the concept of paramilitary, this research is

important to reveal the formation period of Banser, its

ideology, spirit of militerism and its complexity. The

shifting paradigm of Banser has been captured

eloquently in the research by his finding on the

changing pattern of Banser’s role from guarding the

NU people to guarding Indonesia.

Research on similar security unit has been

conducted by David Brown and Ian Wilson under the

title ‘Ethnicized Violence in Indonesia: The Betawi

Brotherhood Forum in Jakarta,’ (Brown and Wilson,

2007). By focusing the case of Forum Betawi

Rempug (FBR, The Betawi Brotherhood Forum),

Brown and Wilson analyze how ethnic group in

Jakarta taking part in the local security issue which

inclines to involve tension between conceptualization

of violence as rational-individual interest and

irrational fanaticism from anomic communities.

Unlike the role of Banser who has serious concern on

guarding minority groups, the FBR members tend to

involve in the preman activism, security service and

having role as the state proxy. However, this research

is important to identify civil society groups which

participate in the security issues

and their relation to

the state.

This research attempts to criticize the previous

researches which describe Banser with the concept of

paramilitary and violence which is attached to

Banser. John Andrade, for example, argues that the

concept of paramilitary is associated with military

capability regardless it is a branch of an armed service

or not (Andrade, 1985). By this concept, it is difficult

to associate Banser with military capability while the

security unit is only trained with traditional self-

defense of pencak silat or kanuragan without armed

by modern weapons. Instead of constructing Banser

as the pro-violence unit, this study investigates the

bright side of the unit as the peace keeping force

which has important role in securing social and

religious events, particularly worship places of

minority groups.

3 THE BANSER AND ITS

DEVELOPMENT

Started from Boy Scouts Division, Banser is initially

erected in 1937 in the second congress of Ansor

Nahdlatul Ulama (ANU) which is later known as

Gerakan Pemuda Ansor (Ansor Youth Movement).

Its name has changed from BANU (Barisan Ansor

Nahdlatul Ulama, Ansor Unit of Nahdlatul Ulama) to

Banser (Barisan Ansor Serbaguna, Ansor

Multipurpose Unit) following the changing social and

political constellation. (S., Kelompok paramiliter

NU, 2004) The current uniform and function which

resembles military in securing social and religious

events can deceive people who do not know of

Indonesian mass organizations to assume such

uniformed civilian as the special force of government.

They were often seen guarding the pengajian

(religious gathering), cultural performances and

churches. (S., Kelompok paramiliter NU, 2004)

Instead of expressing military ethos with strict

discipline and special skill, they tend to escort kyais,

managing traffic and parking lot casually.

The current fact of Banser outnumbering

Indonesia's military and national police reflects civil

society force emulating state's apparatus which has

Civil Society and the Guardian of Multiculturalism: Understanding Banser’s Role in the ‘Swadaya’ Society

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authority to overcome security issues. According to

the chief of Ansor Youth Movement, Yaqut Cholil

Qoumas, Banser has 5 million members throughout

Indonesia, (Lobubun, 2017) while the national army

is 600,000 and national police is 430,000 members.

(Jaya, 2016) However, Banser is not facilitated with

weapon and security equipment as military and

police. They are merely trained with marching,

saluting, security technique and traditional martial

arts which are known as pencak silat or kanuragan

skill. (S., Kelompok paramiliter NU, 2004) Some

people are believed having a technique of skill of

invulnerable from a sharp weapon. Those traditional

skills certainly cannot be compared with modern and

sophisticated military and police unit in handling

social disorder.

Some anecdotes on Banser can describe how this

youth is not as violent and strict as the concept of

paramilitary by some scholars. (Sulistyo, 2000)

Instead, Banser undertakes their duties based on the

principle of obedience to kyais and responsibility to

the community under voluntarism and relaxing ways.

It has been known among nahdliyyin how Banser

dedicates their life to support the community

regarding security. However, it is funny that a

member of Banser reported to local police for his

stolen pocket. In a police station, he came and

reported that last night his pocket was stolen when he

was escorting the cultural performance. The police

certainly can not hold his laughter. (Al-Zastrouw,

2017) Another story also shows how fluid Banser is.

In the wedding party which stages dangdutan

(popular music and dance), Banser was frequently

seen to be involved in the music performance and

intermittently taking part in dancing with the crowd.

(S. H. S., 2004)

The important change happened to Banser in

conjunction with the wave of change of Nahdlatul

Ulama (NU) elite's perspective to the social and

political realities. While the NU's inclination was

conservative and inclined to be an exclusive

community, Banser and its organizational platform

tended to focus on the NU’s events and gatherings.

However, since Abdurrahman Wahid’s thoughts have

influenced the nahdliyyin people, the policy of

Banser is no longer exclusively securing their

community, but also concern on other communities.

In its development, Banser did not only escorting the

pengajian and kyai but also helping to secure cultural

performance, social or interpersonal conflict and later

on churches. According to Hairus Salim, Banser’s

concern has expanded from guarding the NU to

guarding Indonesia. (S. H. S., Kelompok paramiliter

NU, 2004)

Criticism to Banser in handling provocative and

radical preachers has emerged in the last few years,

particularly since the growing puritan groups and pro-

khilafah factions. The emergence of Muslim

preachers who condemn cultural practices of

traditional Muslims has disturbed the pillar of their

religious framework. Some preachers even took part

in the campaign for khilafah system which

contravenes the commitment of Indonesian Muslims

to the Pancasila state beyond the exclusive theocratic

system. Banser’s role in the intervention of religious

forum delivered by Khalid Basalamah (04/03/2017),

for example, has been a criticism of intolerant

approach to different opinion and distinct group. In

fact, according to Rizza Ali Faizin (local leader of

Ansor), Banser did not stop the religious forum which

was held by puritan Muslim community. They merely

conveyed the rejection to the potential hate speech of

the preacher who habitually delivers a hate speech

and provocative contents. The pengajian remained,

but the preacher was replaced by the more moderate

figure. (Nuonline, 2017)

The current dilemma of Banser to be a peace

keeping force or conflict trigger seemingly become a

difficult option in the more democratic atmosphere

and the war of radicalism (idea of khilafah state) at

the same time. It is obvious that commitment of

Banser to protect minority groups and maintain

diversity as the credo of Bhinneka Tunggal Ika (unity

in diversity), however, their position in the field

should consider the limit of intervention and control

of the situation. It is certainly not easy to maintain

peace and prevent conflict, but in the democratic

system which dignifies the rule of law, Banser agents

should understand the rule of the game. It is important

to stay in moderate way and apply anti-violence

concept by prioritizing dialogue and persuasive

approaches.

4 THE GUARDIAN OF

MULTICULTURALISM

The most heroic incident of Banser’s role in

maintaining multiculturalism can be referred to

Riyanto’s sacrifice when he tried to save

congregation of a Javanese church from a bomb

explosion in Mojokerto, East Java. It was started

when Riyanto was participating to escorting

Ebenheizer’s church in the Christmas Eve of 24

December 2000. The 25 year old member of Banser

found a black plastic bag under the bench of the

church which was cover of a bomb. He held the bomb

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and took away quickly from the church to prevent the

explosion from impinging the congregation.

Unfortunately, it was exploded before it was tamed

by disposal unit. His body was torn apart, and he died

suddenly. (Pos, 2017) To document and memorize

this epic story, it has been filmed in 2011 by a

prominent director, Hanung Brahmantyo, under the

title ‘Tanda Tanya’ (Question Mark). (Tempo.co,

2011)

The chairperson of GP Ansor argued that "For us,

Riyanto is a hero for humanity. To save many people,

he sincerely sacrificed his life without considering the

religious background. This action suits our faith as

conveyed by Ali bin Abi Thalib that those who are

not your brother in faith is your brother in humanity."

Still, according to Qoumas, Banser is ready to guard

the celebration of holy days of other religions

including Buddha and Hindu. “For Banser, there is no

Indonesia without diversity of religions. All citizens

who embrace Islam, Christian, Hindu, and Budha,

have taken an important part in fighting for Indonesia

Independence. That is why there should be no any

group can disturb people who undertake his/her

religious rituals. Muslim has obligatory to protect

those who are small in number (minority). However,

the Banser cannot do this forever. We will stop

guarding churches and temple until the threat has

gone,” said Qoumas. (Indonesia, 2017)

Although there are some security units in other

mass organizations, it seems that Banser who has

serious concern on maintaining multiculturalism.

Many scholars use the concept of paramilitary to

describe the security units or squad who have similar

performance with Banser. Under the New Order

regime, for example, there are two paramilitaries

which were used by the ruling regime, such as

Pemuda Pancasila and Pemuda Pancamarga. As they

were recruited from gangs and the street criminal of

preman (thugs), these groups tend to use physical,

psychological intimidation to execute various kinds

of the ruling regime policy. (Wilson, 2006) Ethnic-

based paramilitary of Forum Betawi Rempug (FBR,

Forum for Betawi Solidarity) also tends to show a

similar role with the two security units. (Brown &

Wilson, 2007) Militant Islamist groups even incline

to record notorious reputations such as raiding cafes

discotiques, casinos, brothels and also worship

places. (Hasan, 2008)

The idea of maintaining non-Muslim worship

places for Banser, interestingly, has been started since

the idea of multiculturalism of Abdurrahman Wahid

(Gus Dur) promulgated and serious threat to churches

escalated in the 2000s. It is well-known that

Abdurrahman Wahid has progressive, humanist and

cosmopolitan ideas since his activism in NGO, being

the chairperson of Nahdlatul Ulama (PBNU) and

Indonesian president until his decent of presidential

position. Believing the importance of guarantee of

freedom of religion and freedom of thinking, Gus Dur

seriously fights for the two basic of human rights

under the principle of democratic society. (Arif,

2013) At the level of practice, Gus Dur also showed

his advocacy to minority groups whose existence

often being threatened by more powerful groups.

According to Greg Barton, Abdurrahmad Wahid

soundly interpreted Pancasila into enlightening

values such as democracy, accountable governance

and protection to freedom of belief for the individual.

(Burton, 2013) Once a member of Banser doubted his

duty to secure the church, Gus Dur convinced him

with an awe-inspiring word. "If there is still doubt in

your heart to guard the church, consider that what you

guard is not a church, but Indonesia. At least, consider

that you guard your city. You guard your hometown.

Imagine if anything happened to your hometown, it

must take effect to you, said Gus Dur. (NU Online,

2017)

5 STATE AND CIVIL SOCIETY

In the national constitution, the participation of the

citizen in maintaining security is guaranteed as the

supporting pillar beyond the main force of Indonesia

National Military (TNI) and State Police of Republic

Indonesia (Polri). It is stipulated in the article 30 of

the 1945 Constitution that every citizen has right and

obliges to take part in the defense and security of the

nation. It is further explained that the implementation

is undertaken through what is technically known as

the Sishankamrata (Sistem Pertahanan dan

Keamanan Rakyat Semesta/Defense and Security

System of Whole Citizen) where Indonesia National

Military (TNI) and State Police of Republic Indonesia

(Polri) as the backbone of defense and security

system, while citizen is expected to take part as the

proponent. (National Constitution 1945, 1945)

Participation of citizen in maintaining security can be

referred to the concept of Siskamling (Sistem

Keamanan Lingkungan/ Neighborhood Security

System) which relies on the people participation to

guard their circumstance from any disturbance.

(Sistem Keamanan Lingkungan, 2007) It is known as

the swakarsa-based system of security or the grass-

root-based idea of the security system.

The fact that Indonesia has a large territory and

huge population, but limited resources of security

apparatus, the function of security services has been

frequently strengthened and even taken over by

Civil Society and the Guardian of Multiculturalism: Understanding Banser’s Role in the ‘Swadaya’ Society

1617

society. In many churches which frequently

encounter threats from unknown people, the police

are usually prepared to escort the neighborhood of

church and accompanied by the Banser. After the

bombing of churches in Surabaya in the middle of

May 2018, for example, the East Java Board of

Nahdlatul Ulama (PWNU) encouraged Police to

enhance security in every church of East Java which

will be backed-up by Banser. (Liputan6.com, 2018)

However, on certain occasion Banser took over the

responsibility of securing events replacing the

position of official apparatus. The police have once

come to pick up the envelope (with money inside) and

then gone immediately. There is the impression to

some extent that police is less influential than Banser

in maintaining security. (S. H. S., Kelompok

paramiliter NU, 2004)

The strengthening role of Banser in securing

churches shows people rather than state apparatus

have trusted its reputation. At this point, civil society

has emulated state apparatus regarding a commitment

to maintain multiculturalism in the Pancasila-based

state. The trust granted by society would be an

important social capital to encourage and ensure the

principle of mutual respect among different citizens.

Moreover, the reputation of NU and its agents in

advocating multiculturalism and multiculturalism has

been acknowledged in the last few decades. In the

framework of democratization, NU has shown serious

support to social inclusion of minority groups either

based on ethnic, religion and gender. (Mathema,

2015)

Nevertheless, the Banser’s role in securing places

and events has been recently criticized by certain

groups who perceive the youth organization has

emulated their duty and broken the Indonesian law on

the freedom of speech. The ban of religious gathering

(pengajian) which invites a puritan preacher, Khalid

Basalamah, in Sidoarjo (East Java), radical preacher,

Felix Siauw, in Bangil (East Java), and political

gathering in Surabaya which is known as

#2019gantipresiden (get rid of the president

movement) are some current examples of how Banser

has been assumed as the "troublemaker" of people's

religious and political gathering. Mahfud MD, for

example, argues that it is not allowed for a mass

organization to preclude or dismiss events or religious

gatherings. "Please respect the law," said the senior

lawyer. (mohmahfudmd, 2018) However, according

to the NU's secretary general, Yahya Cholil Staquf,

what NU's agents do is anticipating any harmful

effect to the nation. "We must fight them before they

cause more damage. We will fight this to the end,"

said him convincingly. (The Strait Times, 2017)

According to human right activist, Ahmad

Suaedy, the inclination of Banser as security unit has

significant difference in the post Gus Dur era. The

Gus Dur’s non-violence ideology has inspired them

as peace keeper rather than law breaker like the FPI

(Front Pembela Islam/Islamic Defender Front) and

other hardliner groups. Even in the efforts to secure

the provocative preachers who instigated social

restlessness and radical views, Banser tend to report

and brought state apparatus to overcome the situation

rather than taking action. “In other words, there has

been a shifting paradigm of Banser role before and

after Gus Dur’s era,” said Suaedy. (Sueady, 2018)

6 SWADAYA SOCIETY

Characteristic of Indonesian society who inclines to

mutual help in many aspects of life has been

manifested through the concept of gotong royong.

This concept has been practiced by many ethnic of

culture throughout the archipelago of Nusantara

which relies on the collective support and the

principle of social solidarity to achieve certain goals.

As part of the traditional ethos of villagers, the gotong

royong becomes a basis of social, economic and

political activities, either in the agriculture or coastal

communities. (Suseno, 1996) In Javanese culture, it

has been known as “rukun" which is the

implementation of one of the important values for

Javanese people to help each other and to build

harmony with their neighborhood. (Kartodirdjo,

1980) The main feature of this concept is based on the

primordial bond such as family, geographical

proximity and religious bond. It comprises various

kind of works depending on the habit of people

encompassing domestic, formal or collective works,

religious ritual, wedding, and death ceremony and

many kinds of works. (Kartodirdjo, 1980)

The gotong royong has been practiced by

Indonesian people which is handed down from one

generation to the next generation. It is arisen from the

awareness and spirit to do collective works without

considering or prioritizing personal benefit, except

for the public good. The gotong royong is commonly

based on various principle such as sincerity,

voluntarism, solidarity, tolerance and trust. Since it

has been practiced among many ethnic for a long

period of time, it is later on claimed by scholars as the

original culture of Indonesian people. (Effendi, 2013)

At the same time, it is also claimed by the Indonesian

founding father as the basis of all principle of

Pancasila (Five Principle of State Ideology)

comprising divinity, internationalism, unity,

democracy and welfare. (Latif, 2011)

Social participation in the gotong royong value

idealizes the ability and awareness of citizen to fulfill

their needs based on the self-reliance and self-

responsibility either for short or long term of

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achievement which is conceptualized by people with

the swadaya (self-fulfillment) society. The sense of

belonging and sense of responsibility of the citizen in

the swadaya society certainly does not repudiate the

initiative of government (state) to support the idea or

program of the citizen. The relation between citizen

and state, in this case, tends to be fluid and, to a

certain extent, glorifies an autonomous position of

people. The limit of government often creates an

initiative of the citizen to overcome their social and

economic problems such as garbage management,

fire brigade, health services, religious celebration,

and security management. The community

participation of citizen to provide firefighters in

Banjarmasin (Lestari, Pramono, & Tirton, 2017) and

involvement of South Lampung people in

maintaining security through the Siskamling (Sistem

Keamanan Lingkungan/Neighborhood Security

System) (Setiawan, 2017) are some relevant

examples.

The existence of Banser in the NU organization

can be put as the self-reliance and self-responsibility

of the big community who has serious vision and

platform to protect minority groups from any threat

and terror. Although the official apparatus in securing

churches have been intensely involved, the second

track guardian which is played by Banser becomes an

important part of social participation in the national

system of Hankamrata (total people of defense and

security). It is impossible for the NU community to

entirely rely on the security issues to the state, while

relations between NU and the state has lasted in the

dynamic situations where it can be a good partner or

opponent some other time. Moreover, the great

potency of NU with a vast network and human

resources throughout Indonesia can be used to

achieve many purposes, including security

management. It can be a real manifestation of NU's

responsibility not only to protect and defend

themselves from any disturbance but also benefit for

humanity.

The nature of membership, recruitment and

assignment of Banser which is based on sincerity and

voluntary principles become the important aspects in

the social organisation. In particular, the concept of

ikhlas (sincerity) still dominate the framework of

Banser as the practice of santri (student in pesantren)

in undertaking their duties. Regardless the rate of

payment, Banser with or without the escort of police

secures churches and pengajian (religious forum) in

special days. One of Banser’s member admits that he

does not expect “fee” if the instruction is given by

kyai (cleric). Even he has to pay the cost of public

transportation from his own pocket. However, for the

non-NU held events, he often gets “tips” or “uang

trasport” (fee for transportation) although it is still

under the standard payment of security duty. (Salim,

2004) It is different with the nature of paramilitary

groups which require certain standards and

characters, such as rate of payment, compulsary basis

and relatively tight discipline. (Andrade, 1985)

7 CONCLUSION

In the swadaya society which idealizes the ability and

awareness of citizen to fulfill their needs based on the

self-reliance and self-responsibility, the existence of

Banser in securing religious rituals of minority groups

reflects an important role of the youth organization of

NU community in maintaining diversity and

coexistence. While some scholars described the

Banser with the paramilitary ethos and violent

inclination, the track record of Banser in the post-

New Order regime shows inclusive and protective

ethos not only to their community but also to another

element of the nation. The existence of NU's elite,

particularly Abdurrahman Wahid, has played a

significant role in changing the face and performance

of Banser as security unit in the NU organization and

important element of civil society. Although Banser

has a relaxed style in managing security, their

commitment to guard churches has been

acknowledged by society, particularly referring to the

sacrifice of Riyanto in saving congregation of

Ebenheizer in Mojokerto, East Java. However,

criticism to Banser in handling current situation

frequently presents a dual face of youth organisation.

On the one hand, it has a peaceful and responsible

face of traditional agents in guarding the nation, but it

has also promted a conflict with other groups which

disagree with the intervention and imagined as the

“police actions”. In other words, the non-violence

approaches which have been taught by Gus Dur

should be a credo for Banser to dedicate their life for

peace and humanity.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

Author I am grateful to all colleagues of Graduate

Program of UNUSIA Jakarta who support this

research. I also thank civitas academics of the Faculty

of Social and Politics (FISIP) UIN Syarif

Hidayatullah Jakarta who has facilitated and

encouraged me to complete this research. May Allah

swt awards those people with great virtue and

blessing with a more noble reward.

Civil Society and the Guardian of Multiculturalism: Understanding Banser’s Role in the ‘Swadaya’ Society

1619

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