Women Empowerment in Development: An Overview

Nor Hafizan Habib Sultan,

Fatan Hamamah Yahaya

1,2

Anthropology & Sociology Section, School of Distance Education, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 11800 Penang, Malaysia

Keywords: Empowerment, Women, Development.

Abstract: This article explains the various concepts, theories and dimensions of empowerment that have been

discussed by different scholars with different views. It is an attempt to organize research on empowerment

and women involving domestic and foreign research with emphasis on the linkages between the four

dimensions of empowerment, i.e. economic empowerment, social empowerment, psychological

empowerment and political empowerment. Therefore, in this study, the concepts, theories and the

dimensions of empowerment are explained by its significance. This study is a qualitative study that uses

document analysis. The results show that empowerment contributes to the development of significant

research on empowerment that has been applied in various fields such as social, economic, political,

community development, psychology, health, education and organization (Ampumuza et al., 2007;

Scheyvens, 1999; Sathiabama, 2010; Angahar, 2012) and at the same time delivering a better understanding

of empowerment. Based on literature reviews, empowerment has been discussed by previous researchers at

individual, community and stakeholder levels for socio-economic development purpose.

1 INTRODUCTION

The debate on the definition of empowerment is still

on-going although the term “empowerment” has

been used across many disciplines and each of the

disciplines bring their own meaning and

interpretations. What is empowerment?

Empowerment is not a new concept for this era. The

concept of empowerment has become an alternative

approach to community development (Scheyvens,

2002; Cater, 2006). According to Perkins (Perkins,

1995), the concept of empowerment can be applied

in various fields according to its suitability. Page and

Czuba (Page and Czuba, 1999) viewed that there are

three basic issues available to understand the theory

of empowerment. First, empowerment is

multidimensional as it occurs in sociology,

psychology, economics, politics and other

dimensions. Secondly, empowerment also occurs at

various levels, such as individuals, groups and

communities. Third, empowerment is a social

process associated with others (Peterson et al.,

2005). Empowerment has been adopted in various

fields such as social, economic, political, community

development, psychology, health, education and

organization (Ampumuza et al., 2008; Scheyvens,

1999; Sathiabama, 2010; Angahar, 2012).

Zimmerman (Zimmerman, 1995) believes that

empowerment can be defined as a social process in a

variety of dimensions that help people gain control

over their own lives. Based on literature reviews,

empowerment has been discussed by previous

researchers at individual, community and

stakeholder levels for socio-economic development

purposes. This study contributes to the development

of significant research on empowerment in terms of

concept, theoretical and dimensions of

empowerment in delivering to understanding of

empowerment.

2 METHODOLOGY

This study aims to compile research related to

empowerment and women. The main objective of

the study is to examine the key concepts, theoretical

approaches and dimensions of empowerment based

on relevant literary outcomes. This study is a

qualitative study using document analysis methods.

This analysis involves the process of data collection

and analysis of past studies related to research

topics. Furthermore, the findings are organized into

themes that have been created by researchers to

Habib Sultan, N. and Yahaya, F.

Women Empowerment in Development: An Overview.

DOI: 10.5220/0008890005270534

In Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Multidisciplinary Research (ICMR 2018) - , pages 527-534

ISBN: 978-989-758-437-4

527

facilitate readers to understand issues related to

empowerment.

3 CONCEPTUAL REVIEW OF

EMPOWERMENT

Empowerment is the ability of an individual or

group to make a choice and transform the choice

into desired action and get the results from it (World

Bank, 2007). Indeed, empowerment is a process of

achieving something (Maholtra et al., 2002) such as

the ability to communicate with the bank, ability to

help others, ability to make decisions in the family

and ability to plan effectively (Solava and Sabina,

2007). They also argue that empowerment is a form

of control (how to control the individual's decisions),

the choice (controlling autonomy and also decisions

making in the household), the community (change

for the individual's) and also the opportunity (change

for the community).

When discussing empowerment, it usually

involves different processes of change which are

both external and internal. The process of internal

change encompasses the belief or ability of a person

to decide and solve problems on their own while

external processes see one's ability to act and

implement new practical knowledge, information,

skills, capabilities and resources (Parsons et al.,

1998). According to Charlier and Caubergs (Charlier

and Caubergs, 2007) in human life, there are four

aspects of empowerment that are power to assets to

accumulate that include income, land, resources or

technology), knowledge (the power to increase

knowledge or skills by allowing an individual to

control another individual or community to become

a person leader), internal power (psychological

strength, spiritual spirit, self-confidence as well as

ability to make his own choices) and capacity

(internal power to choose his own, take

responsibility and be free to act).

In short, empowerment is the power and the

freedom of self that an individual receives. In

addition, power relations are more geared towards

mutual relations to make a decision. Bailey (Bailey,

1992) defines empowerment in a project group is

subject to build the group's and the environment that

they live. However, scholars agreed that power ideas

are the basis of empowerment concepts. Mosedale

(Mosedale, 2003) lists four key aspects that are often

discussed in these studies related to women

empowerment. First of all, he said that before one

was able to empower himself, they were initially in a

"disempowered" position. Among the barriers to this

"disability" are the norms, beliefs, customs and

values that exist in a society that distinguishes

between men and women (Kabeer, 2001). Both self-

empowerments is not a gift from a third party, but

the individual needs to work to get it. Therefore,

development programs implemented can only help

and provide an environment to enable individuals or

groups of individuals to get the experience for

empowerment processes. All three dimensions of

empowerment often include the ability and ability of

individuals to make decisions about what is

important in their lives. Fourth, empowerment is a

continuous process rather than a final product. Each

individual will go through the empowerment phase

and the "disability" phase alternately throughout

their lives. The concept of empowerment can be

divided into four categories: legal empowerment,

political empowerment, economic empowerment

and social empowerment.

3.1 Empowerment and Women

The term of empowerment has been used since 1980

especially in the field of development (Imran and

Farhana, 2009). Women's empowerment is when

women are involved in the process of decision

making to change their level of self-confidence,

especially about women's status and how women

make decisions in their home (Sharma, 2007).

According to Mosiur et al (Mosiur et al, 2009),

women with children who are still in school need to

decide on schooling for children and decide on

family medicine. Not only that, but women make

their own decisions primarily in terms of household

spending. Empowerment of women is a strategy for

the development of a country because it involves the

full involvement of women towards equality in

society including participation in the decision-

making process and access to power which is the

basis for achieving development, equality and

security (Hazel and Sally, 2000). Through

empowerment, women have the power to change the

socio-economic and development of a country

(Jayaraman, 2008).

Empowerment of women is often the main

objective emphasized in most development

programs involving women's participation.

However, there is not yet a definite definition to

define the purpose of empowerment because each

individual uses the meaning of empowerment for

different things. Many scholars in the field of

development emphasize the income generation

aspect as one of the easiest ways to provide women

ICMR 2018 - International Conference on Multidisciplinary Research

528

"internal power" especially in developing countries.

(Ardener and Burman, 1995; Boserup, 1970;

Fernando, 1997; Osmani, 1998; Sidney and

Hashemi, 1994). The empowerment of women

through micro-credit programs is one of the

important aspects discussed in the study on

empowerment in the 1990s. As a result, there has

been an increase in women's involvement in the

informal market as these markets are more

accessible to women especially poor women. Most

aid projects to women in Ghana focus on micro

credit systems such as Grameen Bank it is called

'Milk lice' (Bortei-Doku and Aryeetey, 1995).

3.2 Definition of Empowerment

Empowerment is an increasingly popular term in

development studies, sociology, public health and

business. But the definition of empowerment is still

unclear and is often misused in the development

world (Taylor, 2000). Generally, Rappaport

(Rappaport, 1987) defines empowerment as a

process mechanism of individuals, organizations and

communities acquiring or acquiring control over

their lives.

The definition of empowerment continues to

evolve in different contexts. Zimmerman

(Zimmerman, 1995) believes that empowerment can

be defined as a social process in various dimensions

that help people gain control over their own lives. In

addition, Gauthier (Gauthier, 1993) defines

empowerment in the context of controlling that act

in a distinct way to control their lives.

Page and Czuba (Page and Czuba, 1999)

mentions that empowerment is a process of

empowering (i.e. ability to implement) individuals,

whether for their own lives or within society and

freedom of action on issues that occur in their

environment. Referring to the environmental

element, Perkins and Zimmerman (Perkins and

Zimmerman, 1995) also refer to empowerment as a

process that links the well-being of individuals to a

vast environment. In addition, the term

empowerment is also defined as individuals or

groups who have the ability to determine their own

success and will develop a "build" process that will

help the public in controlling the factors affecting

their lives (Cole, 2006).

The World Bank (World Bank-2002) provides a

general definition of empowering definition of

empowerment in terms of freedom of choice and

action. According to the World Bank (2002), there

are four main elements in empowerment:

a) Access to information is power. Communities

are told to be more willing to take advantage

of opportunities, access to services, exercise

their rights and ensure that the state and the

authorities are responsible for their actions.

b) Participation / opportunities - opportunities for

poor and isolated groups to participate in

decision-making on the use of limited public

resources in building the knowledge and

priorities of the local community and the

commitment to bring about change.

c) Accountability - government officials, civil

servants and private parties should be

responsible for policy, action and use of funds

by government agencies.

d) Capacity of local organizations - refers to the

ability of the public to cooperate in organizing

themselves and mobilizing resources to solve

problems involving common interests.

Organized communities are more likely to

have their voices heard and their demands are

met.

Malhotra et al. (Malhotra et al. 2004) have

summarized the definition of empowerment by

taking into various aspects. He argues that

empowerment is one of the processes to gain power

and control over decisions and resources.

Additionally, empowerment also refers to

independence, choice, dignity, control,

independence and capacity to their own lives and

interaction within society (Malhotra et al., 2004).

But he thinks that there is no definite definition and

measurement for the definitions of empowerment.

3.3 Theory of Empowerment

The theory of empowerment is identified from

Brazil in, 1973; Pluto Freire has used humanity

theory in the context of empowering education (Hur,

2006). Pluto Freire has put forward a plan or

strategy to liberate the oppressed community

through education empowerment. He believes

education plays an important role in empowering the

community and thus liberates them from continuing

to be oppressed. He added that empowerment

through education will enhance the individual's

ability to identify the ability and the ability of

individuals to identify their capabilities and abilities

in terms of knowledge and skills (Hur, 2006).

However, this empowerment theory is not only

focused on education, it has also been widely

applied in various fields such as psychology,

management, political theory, social work,

education, women's studies, economics and

Women Empowerment in Development: An Overview

529

sociology (Gershick et al., 1990; Rappaport, 1985;

Swift and Levin, 1987; Lincoln et al., 2002).

Most previous researchers claim that the theory

of empowerment related to psychological

approaches. According to Rappaport (Rappaport,

1987) in the quotes from Tones and Tilford (Tones

and Tilford, 2001) writings, empowerment is a

major theory in community psychology to correct

the prevailing imbalances in society. Psychological

empowerment theory in society is also applied to

achieve a better and more equitable distribution of

resources among society (Tones & Tilford, 2001).

In addition, theory of empowerment also

involves intrapersonal and behavioral components

(Zimmerman et al., 1992; Perkin and Zimmerman

1995; Parpart et al., 2003). The intrapersonal

component refers to how people think about their

ability to influence social and political systems.

While behavioral components refer to specific

actions one can take to implement their influence on

social and political environments through

participation in community organizations and

community activities. Zimmerman et al.

(Zimmerman et al. 1992) supported the statement by

stating that intrapersonal components and behaviors

were consistent with empowering theory.

The empowerment theory generally refers to the

construct that connects the strengths, individual

competence and proactive behaviors on social basis

and social change (Rappaport, 1981, 1984). The

empowerment theory connects the well-being of

individuals with a larger social, economic and

political environment. The empowerment theory

also refers to an "empowerment-oriented"

intervention aimed to improving living standards,

solving problems, giving individuals the opportunity

to develop knowledge and skills and involve

professionals as partners (Perkins et al., 1995).

Page and Czuba (Page and Czuba, 1999) viewed

that there are three basic issues that exist to

understand the theory of empowerment. First,

empowerment is multidimensional as it occurs in

sociology, psychology, economics, politics and other

dimensions. Secondly, empowerment also occurs at

various levels, such as individuals, groups and

communities. Thirdly, empowerment is a social

process as it happens to be related to others

(Peterson et al., 2005).

While Narayan (Narayan, 2002) emphasizes four

key elements in empowerment theory, i.e. access to

information, participation, mutual trust and local

organizational capabilities. He added that these

elements can be used to develop empowering

theories that explain how empowerment

(individuals, communities and organizations) will

lead to improved living, economic, basic services,

access to justice and good governance (Narayan,

2002) . As illustrated by Parpart et al., (Parpart et al.,

2003), they emphasize empowerment as a result that

can be enhanced and assessable.

The theory of empowerment also involves

process and outcome, which is the process of

showing action, activity or structure that leads to

empowerment (Swift and Levin, 1987). While the

results refer to benefits can be gained from the

empowerment process (Swift and Levin, 1987).

However, there are also researchers who argue that

empowerment involves only processes (Rissel,

1994; and Levin, 1987; Wallerstein and Bernstein,

1988).

Processes and outcomes in theory of

empowerment exist in three stages, namely

individual, community and organizational levels

(Bernstein et al., 1994; Perkins and Zimmerman

1995; Laverack and Wallerstein, 2001). The

empowerment process at the individual level refers

to participation in community organizations (Perkins

and Zimmerman, 1995). At the organization level,

the empowerment process refers to collective

decision-making and co-leadership. While the

empowerment process at the community level refers

to collective action to access community and

government resources (Perkins and Zimmerman,

1995).

The result of empowerment is to see the effect of

implementing empowerment processes at all three

levels i.e. individuals, communities and

organizations. According to Perkins and

Zimmerman (Perkins and Zimmerman, 1995),

empowerment at individual levels refers to certain

controls and skills. At the organization level, the

outcome includes the development of organizational

networks, organizational growth and benefits to the

policy. While the empowerment at community level

refers to the existence of a combination of

organization and community access to resources

around them (Perkins and Zimmerman, 1995).

Kayat and Mohd Noor (Kayat and Mohd Noor,

2006) emphasize empowerment as capacity

development or capability seen as playing two roles,

i.e. (a) encouraging the community to engage, and

(b) as a result of their involvement. Sofield (Sofield,

2003) defines empowerment as a multi-dimensional

process that offers the community through

consultation process, the opportunity to learn, the

ability to make and implement decisions, acceptance

of responsibility for decision-making, and the impact

on their actions and benefits to the community and

ICMR 2018 - International Conference on Multidisciplinary Research

530

its members (Alsop and Heinsohn, 2005).

Contradicting to the opinion of Maholtra et al.

(Maholtra et al. 2002) states empowerment is a

process of achieving something like the ability to

connect with banks, the ability to help others, the

ability to make decisions in the family and the

ability to make effective plans.

Scheyvens (Scheyvens, 2009) has different

opinions about the empowerment process. He argues

that the process of empowerment refers to mutual

actions by individuals in society who have the same

aims and aspirations to make positive changes in

their communities. This suggests that the process of

empowerment in community development involves

the cooperation of all individuals within society as

well as engage stakeholders to work together to

resolve planning issues and identify policies and

actions for development.

There is also a researcher who believes

empowerment is merely a process of thinking that

the process is capacity building (Swift and Levin,

1987; Wallerstein and Bernstein, 1988; Rissel,

1994). The process is also understood to enhance the

capabilities of individuals, groups, organizations or

communities to (a) Analyze their environment, (b)

Identify problems, needs, issues and opportunities

and needs and seize relevant opportunities, d) Form

a plan of action, (e) Use resources sustainably to

implement, monitor and evaluate action plans and (f)

Use feedback as a learning process.

However, according to Rappaport (Rappaport,

1984) and Zimmerman (Zimmerman, 1993) there is

no standard term that can explain the processes and

results of empowerment. Understanding the

processes and outcomes of empowerment will

explain the importance to understand clearly the

theory of empowerment. In general, empowering

theory refers to constructs that link forces, individual

competence and proactive behaviors on social basis

and social change (Rappaport, 1981, 1984). The

empowerment theory links the well-being of

individuals to a greater social, economic, and

political environment. The empowerment theory

also refers to "empowerment" oriented interventions

aimed at improving living standards, solving

problems, giving individuals the opportunity to

develop knowledge and skills and engage in

professional groups as joint-venture partners

(Perkins and Zimmerman 1995).

3.4 Dimensions of Empowerment

According to Scheyvens (Scheyvens, 1999) there are

four main dimensions in empowerment, namely

economic empowerment, social empowerment,

psychological empowerment and political

empowerment. Although previous studies have

shown that empowerment have multiple dimensions

(Gershick, Israel, & Checkoway, 1990; Rappaport,

1985; Swift & Levin, 1987; Lincoln et al., 2002), but

according to Scheyvens (1999) the empowerment of

dimensions in figure 1:

Figure 1: Dimensions of Empowerment (Source:

Adaptation from Scheyvens, 1999).

According to Scheyvens (Scheyvens, 1999) the

dimensions of social empowerment refer to the

situation in which social unity and integrity are

recognized and reinforced. It involves the existence

of united society groups, including women, youth

and the elderly. In other words, the strengthening

and preservation of cultural traditions and the

conservation of natural resources can enhance the

social empowerment of the local community.

Generally, social empowerment can be achieved

when the community is able to maintain or improve

the balance in the community.

Economic dimensions arise when communities

are empowered to consider economic benefits

directly or indirectly in the long term of economic

advantages (Scheyvens, 1999; Timothy, 2007).

Economic empowerment can be achieved when the

revenue gained is shared among local communities

with a fair distribution network (Scheyvens, 2009).

And economic gains are widely distributed in the

society, especially to the less fortunate, including

women and the poor and not to the elite and

outsiders (Timothy, 2007; Scheyvens, 1999).

The dimensions of psychological empowerment

refer to community members who have confidence

in the traditions, cultural and values inherent in

nature and are optimistic about their future

(Scheyvens, 1999). Psychological empowerment can

ECONOMIC

POLITIC SOCIAL

PSYCHOLOGY

EMPOWERMENT

Women Empowerment in Development: An Overview

531

be seen when there is external recognition and in

relation to the cultural values and natural heritage of

the community as a recognition that can enhance

self-esteem among the community and they are more

excited to share their knowledge, traditional culture

and experience (Timothy, 2007). This can enhance

the sense of pride and enthusiasm that can lead to

the growth of confidence among members of society

to participate in social activities by mutual

cooperation among the community (Scheyvens,

1999).

The last dimension of empowerment is political

empowerment. It refers to the situation when

political power can provide opportunities for local

people or the public to voice their opinion in the

decision-making process of its development and

implementation (Scheyvens, 1999; Timothy, 2007).

Political empowerment involves all community

stakeholder groups, including ethnic groups, women

and the poor, given the same opportunity to

determine their own future (Timothy, 2007; Cusack

& Dixon, 2006). However, Scheyvens (1999) does

not state which dimensions are more important and

which dimensions have a greater impact on

community development.

4 CONCLUSION

From the above discussion, it is clear that there are

various concepts, theories and dimensions of

empowerment and women that have been discussed

by different scholars with different concepts and

views. There are four-dimensional correlation of

economic empowerment, social empowerment,

psychological empowerment and political

empowerment that Scheyvens (Scheyvens, 1999) is

very significant to empower women in development.

It is clear that the concept of empowerment is to

achieve the integration of all four major dimensions

for sustainable community development.

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