Infusing Engagement into Digital Game-based Learning Design for

Orang Asli Learners

Mohd Syazwan Wan Mahzan

, Nor Aziah Alias

and Nabilah Abdullah

SMK Chiku 02 Kelantan, Malaysia

Faculty of Education Universiti Teknologi MARA Selangor, Malaysia

Keywords: Design Guidelines, DGBL, Engagement, Game Design, Orang Asli learners.

Abstract: The advancement of technological applications has paved the way to the rapid development of digital modules

across learning subjects. Employment of digital game-based (DGBL) methodology in a classroom setting is

increasing in number as it has the potential to offer overwhelmingly engaging experiences to learners.

However, teachers often whine over the one-size-fits-all game designs of the presently available DGBL

materials which often do not cater to the needs of marginalized indigenous learners, Orang Asli in this context

of the review, thus discouraging them to be fully engaged in lessons. Therefore, integrating digital game-play

into learning becomes a daunting task without a comprehensive understanding of what game design engages

learners the best. The aims of this paper are to 1) review the place of engagement in the digital platform by

synthesizing game designs that effectively affect engagement and 2) propose relevant, engaging design

guidelines meant for the learning of marginalized learners. This is the first review article proposing game

design guidelines that are engagement friendly, and context-sensitive to these indigenous learners who will

be termed as Orang Asli learners in the rest of this article. The implications of the review are two-fold:

addressing the significance of engaging DGBL activities and providing a set of DGBL design guidelines for

educational technologists to consider in their future DGBL projects.

1 INTRODUCTION

The right learning stimulus can extrinsically motivate

learners in the classroom, resulting the learners to get

engaged and later intrinsically push them to fulfill the

assigned learning tasks. Studies on learning

engagement have gained growing attention from

academicians around the globe, but the focus has been

short in which engagement is always viewed as the

subcategory of motivation. A plethora of research has

embarked on exploring learners’ motivation in the

classroom (Ahmad, 2016; Ali Mohsen, 2016; Calvo-

Ferrer, 2015). Ironically, despite motivation is the

core focus, the discussions of the findings dominantly

used the terms ‘engagement’, ‘cognitive

engagement’, ‘task engagement’, ‘disengagement’,

‘engaged’, and ‘engaging’ in discussing how the

learners responded. Thus, studies specifically

concentrating on engagement in DGBL platform are

empirically scarce in number and worth to be

explored further.

This review aims to establish the place of

engagement in DGBL studies while at the same time

exploring the potential game designs that are

engagement friendly and consequently cater to the

needs of hard-to-engage Orang Asli learners. This

short exploratory review of the literature (Hallinger,

2013) examines past relevant DGBL studies that

testified, directly or indirectly, engagement as one of

the learning outcomes. Due to the very limited

number of studies related to the engagement of Orang

Asli in DGBL environment, studies targeting

marginalized learners as samples were also chosen.

We employed Google Scholar TM as the primary

research tool due to its powerful capability to locate

potential articles across databases around the world.

Keywords like “DGBL”, “engagement”, “special

education”, “special needs”, “CALL”, “digital

platform”, “indigenous”, “native” and “Orang Asli”

were keyed in into the search engine to sieve the

potential articles. As many as 46 articles were

retrieved and filtered further for their relevancy.

Finally, ten relevant articles from 2010 to 2017 were

finally chosen by after they were reviewed for

contents about the objectives of this review.

Orang Asli learners experienced an extreme

deficiency in learning across subjects (Renganathan,

2016; Ma’alip, 2016). Orang Asli learners’ attitudinal

178

Mahzan, M., Alias, N. and Abdullah, N.

Infusing Engagement into Digital Game-based Learning Design for Orang Asli Learners.

DOI: 10.5220/0008682901780184

In Improving Educational Quality Toward International Standard (ICED-QA 2018), pages 178-184

ISBN: 978-989-758-392-6

behaviors in class are distinctly different as compared

to other groups of learners; they do not show any

signs of dejected behaviors towards what is being

taught in classroom-like not doing the homework

given and skipping lessons as opposed to what many

students of other races always do. Despite having

good behaviors, many of them were reported to

experience basic literacy and numeracy (3R)

problems (Md Nor et.al, 2011; Mihat, 2013). High

anxiety in learning has been identified as the main

factor contributing to these problems (Pawanchik

et.al, 2010). High anxiety level inhibits them from

engaging themselves to be an active learner and this

sad state of affair has posed a real challenge for

teachers to teach this group of learners.

In response to this issue, coupled with the growing

trend of DGBL utilization in the classroom,

transactional study, utilizing design and development

research method (Richey et.al, 2010) to design and

develop DGBL materials, has been seen as an

alternative to improve learning engagement in the

classroom.

The engaging design is proposed to be infused

into the design and development of DGBL module

with the aim to break the spell of reclusiveness among

Orang Asli learners. Nevertheless, teachers in

Malaysia often claim over the generic designs of the

presently available DGBL materials that do not cater

to the needs of Orang Asli learners and this has

violated the rule of thumb in design-based research in

which design elements embedded in any DGBL

modules should be contextually sensitive (Wang &

Hannafin, 2005). The problem is substantiated with

the recent move by the Ministry of Education of

Malaysia (MOE), officially announced in the

Malaysia education development plan 2013-2015, to

introduce the Asli Penan Curriculum (KAP) to cater

to the needs of indigenous communities (Mihat,

2013).

Therefore, contextually sensitive elements of

marginalized learners with relevant engaging designs

about the social and cultural contacts of those learners

were synthesized in this review. For instructional

technologists, integrating digital game-play into

learning is no mean feat without comprehensive input

and understanding on what game design engages

learners the best (Qian & Clark, 2016). In the context

of Orang Asli learners in Malaysia, our review of

articles addressed the following two guiding

questions:

1. What is the place of engagement in the

digital platform by synthesizing game

designs that effectively affect engagement?

2. What are the engaging design guidelines

relevant to be utilized in the design of DGBL

module for Orang Asli learners?

2 LITERARY REVIEW

The definition of engagement used in this review is

based on Vygotsky's (1978) social constructivist

theory of how human constructs world knowledge

based on the different environments they are in. He

argues that knowledge construction and active

engagement in learning are pre-defined by social and

cultural contexts. Social interaction influences

learners’ knowledge ‘absorption’. Learners scaffold

the knowledge which is embedded within social and

cultural contexts via meaning negotiation and sense-

making process.

The implications of Vygotsky’s view have given

significant impact to the present teaching and learning

processes. One of them is that, to scaffold learners of

diverse backgrounds, it is pivotal for teachers to

consider infusing authentic and meaningful learning

(Kaufman, 2004) into social and cultural interactions

to make learners engaged with given learning tasks

and thus drive their understandings way forward.

In the context of instructional technology, Kasper

(Kasper, 2000) contends that the employment of

technology in learning increases learner motivation in

which learners are stimulated to be engaged with

language and content. Technological platforms are

viewed as powerful teaching tools, having the

capability to provide virtual yet authentic tasks, that

cannot be offered by traditional classroom teaching.

Apart from that, DGBL, one of many manifestations

of computer-assisted language learning (CALL),

contributes to the following advantages in getting

learners engaged; less instructor time per student and

instantaneous feedback features that respectively

promote a sense of autonomous learning and

immediate feedback (Pittman & Edmond, 2016).

Aragon, Johnson, and Shaik (Aragon et.al, 2002)

review on Curry’s (1991) Theoretical Model of

Learning Style Components and Effects. The model

theorizes the consideration of factors such as

motivation maintenance and task engagement when

designing any educational program. Such specific

information-processing orientations dictate learner

learning styles and learning success. Motivation

maintenance and task engagement complement one

another in the sense that the former is realized first by

learner via positive motivation. The later then comes

in the form of the desired magnitude of task

engagement that is illustrated into “active effort,

Infusing Engagement into Digital Game-based Learning Design for Orang Asli Learners

179

behavior, and cognitive processing to integrate the

new information into long-term memory” (Curry,

1991). Thus, the following figure is put forth as a

conceptual framework to guide our review:

Figure 1: Conceptual framework.

Conceptual framework for reviewing articles related

to engagement in DGBL platform for Orang Asli

learners

Reflecting on the dominant influence of

motivation towards student learning, infusing explicit

engaging elements into learning design is of

importance to be implemented although engagement

in the first place is initiated as a result of motivation.

As highlighted by Dormann, Whitson, & Biddle

(2011) design structures should not come from pre-

conceived notions for them to be working well in

various contexts. Hence, careful synthesis on various

game designs in tandem with engagement factor and

the needs-based design of learners of specific needs

should be carried out and concurrently relevant game

design guidelines that celebrate learning engagement

and have the potential to cater the socially and

culturally sensitive needs of Orang Asli learners were

put forth.

3 CREATING LEARNING

ENGAGEMENT VIA DGBL

Research outcomes from several studies of different

designs related to learning engagement in the digital

platform have served as the foci of this review,

leading to an understanding on the importance of

designing digital learning platform. These foci,

together with the ‘best’ practices from past research

via borrowing and adapting techniques in

developmental research (Alias, 2007) could lead to

the proposal of initial design guidelines which aim to

guide future development efforts.

Firstly, engagement affects motivation, curiosity,

interests, control and learning effectiveness (Ali

Mohsen, 2016; Calvo-Ferrer, 2015; Thanabalan,

2015; Katuk, 2013). Thanabalan et al. (2015)

conducted qualitative interview sessions with ten

English Language teachers from Orang Asli schools

and observations to observe English as a Second

Language (ESL) learning in the classroom. The

teachers were required to use a digital story

pedagogical module developed by the researchers. In

the observations, the learners were seen to be engaged

with the lessons in the module. One of the main

qualitative findings from the interviews was the

teacher informants claimed they were pleased with

the features of the digital module. They managed to

engage learners’ interest and excitement during the

teaching and learning processes since the module was

sensitive and familiar to the learners’ values, prior

experiences and cultural knowledge.

Another study by Ali Mohsen (2016) examined

the extent of students’ interaction with an online

video simulation and its effects on second language

video comprehension and incidental vocabulary

learning (done via computer-based simulation). The

main finding was the players from the experimental

group significantly outclassed the viewers from the

control group in comprehension and vocabulary

recognition test. World knowledge gained from video

simulation was transferred into virtual problem-

solving tasks in computer-based simulation and such

continuation engaged the players to accomplish the

tasks and gave better comprehension and memory

retention of the knowledge learned.

Calvo-Ferrer (2015) conducted an experimental

study on 59 undergraduate students. The study aimed

to measure the effect of the developed educational

game on second language (L2) vocabulary

acquisition and perceived learning gains, as compared

with a non-gaming tool which only replicated its

contents. This study was in place due to the number

of past studies that questioned the real educational

values that computer games could offer especially

when used without instructional support or for

informal learning purposes. Two main findings were

drawn from the study. First, the results of pre-, post-

and delayed tests showed that the experimental group

who had access to the contents via the video game

achieved statistically better results, viewed the

learning materials as appealing and perceived their

vocabulary skills were developed further than those

in the control group. The second finding contradicts

with the finding made by Ali Mohsen (2016) in which

the regression model showed the actual enjoyment of

the game did not affect their learning outcomes, be it

their perceived effectiveness or vocabulary test

results. Such contradiction calls for thoughtful

consideration on the value of fun elements in DGBL

design over other value such as engagement which

can serve as an important predictor in learning

success.

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However, despite not being able to contribute

positively to student learning outcomes, Calvo-Ferrer

(2015) attributed the finding to the importance of

cognitive engagement that should play a more central

role rather than the feeling of fun in educational

gaming activities in second language vocabulary

acquisition. This is an angle that instructional

designers should be cautious of when developing

DGBL activities as many educational game

developers tend to subside the supposed educational

values by focusing more on fun factors.

The second research outcome is affective learning

domains about emotions, and social values have often

gone unnoticed in DGBL research as these learning

domains will influence the level of scaffolding in the

gameplay and game patterns for optimal learning

condition (Abdul Jabbar & Felicia, 2015; Dorman,

2011). Abdul Jabbar & Felicia (2015) were initially

in support of the standard norm practiced by

researchers who referred to Bloom’s (1956)

taxonomy when determining learning outcomes in

curriculum design, but they later realize that the

taxonomy is not being comprehensive enough,

pointing solely on cognitive factors and thus

excluding affective factors that shape human

experiences.

The work of both Silver & Perini (2010) was

referred to address the ambiguity. As a result, they

resorted to utilizing Kolb’s (1984) experiential

learning theory focusing on affective learning

elements such knowledge anticipation and reflection

with the aim to investigate the effects of learning

styles and instructional designs in increasing student

commitment to learning. Undeniably, cognitive

learning elements are viewed as the learning core and

these elements reflect on the skills or knowledge

awareness gained by learners. Nevertheless, for

affective learning elements, though functioning at the

peripheral learning circle, prove to be the firing

cylinder for learning to occur as the different

emotions experienced by learners has been

paramount in any engagement process.

In 2011, the likes of Dormann et al. (2011)

conducted multiple case studies deploying affective

walkthrough approach to observe game-play designs

in two genres of serious games and identify recurring

design elements that could be identified as patterns

with the focus on affective learning. They used

popularly rated serious games to identify those game

patterns. The patterns identified in those games were

social maintenance, sacrificial action, shared

learning, call to action and sympathy for victims.

Another major finding was about the unique role of

scaffolding embedded in the gameplay, instead of

instructional support in conventional classroom

interaction. They were enlightened by the fact that

giving and removing the amount of support in

traditional learning requires explicit or tangible

instructions by teachers. However, in gamification,

scaffolding can be part of the game-play in which the

nature of player engagement becomes central.

The third research outcome is that, as far as

engagement in the digital platform is concerned,

learning via technological platforms helps lengthen

the attention span for marginalized learners. Carr &

Blanchfield (2011) conducted a qualitative study

utilizing the motivational power of computer games

to aid children with behavioural, emotional and social

difficulties (BESD) respond to their extreme problem

in focusing on traditional educational activities.

Several findings which were considered significant

were discovered. First, DGBL provided a platform for

BESD children to be responsible of their learning.

Second, BESD children were exposed and indirectly

educated to social literacy in a gamified environment

that is occupied by characters and exploratory

activities. Third, BESD children were found to be

emphatically towards others and this encouraged

social literacy as they became engaged with the

‘right’ games by taking another role in such gamified

environment, different from what they had perceived

themselves in real world about their ‘special’ state of

minds. Last but not least, the ‘right’ computer game

had the power to attract attention and imagination of

BESD children and engage them with learning tasks.

However, despite the advantages that the

computer games could offer, Carr & Blanchfield

(2011) contended on the insufficiency of emphasis on

the must-include design elements for computer games

such as, to name a few, competition, reward and

punishment, difficulty level, score summary and

discovery gamified environment. There was a marked

tendency for the games to focus more on content-

getting aspect rather than infuse gameplay

experience, resulting in the software to resemble

traditional educational materials wrapped in a game-

like interface. This is something common happening

to the development of educational games and should

be noted seriously in which such effort is merely a

translation of pencil-and-paper activities or games,

often found in the traditional classroom, into a digital

platform. Thus, game-play elements should be a

central focus in the design and development of DGBL

modules.

Most recent notable outcomes of utilizing

gamification for learning engagement purpose were

made by Sobocinski (2017) in his reflective research

in which he qualitatively revealed his “hands-on

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181

experience, mistakes and solutions” on gamification

based on his vast experience of designing gamified

courses and workshops. He acknowledges the

benefits that gamification could offer to students:

increase motivation, sustain engagement and ensure

learning flow.

Nevertheless, he accentuated that gamification

project does not happen overnight as preparing,

organizing, and designing it are tedious and time-

consuming and there are pertinent conditions to be

met before the development decision. With that,

Sobocinski made a statement that gamification is

introduced only when a learning problem is evident

on learners’ side such lack of motivation, dwindling

engagement and old-fashioned instructional approach

where learning flow is affected greatly.

Another concern raised by Sobocinski worth to be

addressed here is that researchers and academicians

are inclined to find only the beautiful ‘facades’ of

gamification as such is the ‘right’ and ‘novel’ thing to

do in research. It always occurs in many research and

journal reports in which the strengths always

outweigh the weaknesses. Instances are locating

articles that reported on the flaws of their prototype

designs and how the flawed designs were formatively

evaluated and refined further, are indeed lacking.

Knowing how to measure engagement level in

classroom instruction helps teachers improve

teaching and learning. Engagement is closely referred

to one’s motivational affair in accomplishing one

particular task (Aneetta et.al, 2011). In the context of

student learning, engagement is viewed as the contact

point when one’s motivation is triggered, as a result

of interesting learning activity. Curry (1991), in his

exhaustive qualitative study, claimed that stimulating

learning activities would affect attention during

instruction, persistence in fulfilling the set learning

tasks, class participation and enthusiasm and

sustainability of learning outcomes whether in-class

or out-of-class classroom contexts.

Therefore, the significant relationship between

learner motivation, task engagement and cognitive

control has brought to light about the importance of

designing pedagogical approaches and materials that

should also lend weight on engagement aspect and

simultaneously maintain the development of

cognitively-abled task and instruction.

All in all, the discussions on different perspectives

of engagement studies in the digital platform have

generated some important points pertinent to

engaging learners via DGBL activities.

While some studies negatively reported on the

infusion of digital learning platform of not being

positively correlated with learning performance in

spite of experiencing higher engagement, most

authors seem to come to a consensus about the

engaging power of such learning platform to spur

learner interest in learning while concurrently allow

windows of opportunity for learners to attain

autonomous learning that is really lacking in

traditional learning system.

This realization has impacted the consideration of

DGBL design guidelines to have the following

features for Orang Asli learners: infusing elements of

Orang Asli cultures, also considering the possibility

of infusing the present trendy pop culture that might

socially affect the learners, focusing more on

cognitively engaging task rather than fun factors,

infusing game-play elements like game characters,

role-playing mode, competition, reward and

punishment, difficulty level and score summary, and

finally utilizing latest digital learning tools that can

lead to self-learning discovery like multiplayer

gaming mode and mission-based games.

In response to the success stories of digital

technology utilization in creating engaging learning

atmosphere for learners of different levels (Ali

Mohsen, 2016; Thanabalan, 2015; Katuk, 2013) it is

imperative for instructional designers to identify first

what actually interests learners and concurrently draw

out a range of engaging elements that are context-

specific and sensitive to this group of learners. This is

important as to create engagement for first-time game

users are easy but to sustain such continuing

engagement for longer period of time proves to be a

challenge. Hence, DGBL elements must allow for

sustained engagement over time to perpetuate

learning.

Finally, researchers or course designers should be

aware that any proposal to infuse DGBL program

should stem from authentic learning problems

experienced learners, not merely following trends in

research. Other than that, designing and developing

DGBL activities or modules must go through rigorous

formative evaluation. In doing so, design flaws of the

developed prototypes need to be addressed, refined

and reported accordingly for the research outcomes to

be of worthy reference to guide future development

efforts (All et.al, 2016).

While the majority of the studies assent to the

importance of learner excitement factors in the design

of digital learning platform, it is ironical when

engagement has been viewed as the missing

component in the instructional design and thus should

be given more emphasis than that feeling-fun factor

(Calvo-Ferrer, 2015). The premise proves to be a

statement worth to be noted with regards to the

abundant number of research in recent years directed

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to evaluate the employed digital prototypes solely

regarding technological user acceptance that

disregards the aspect of learning engagement (Berns,

2016; Abdul Aziz, 2015; Milošević, 2014)

Consequently, developmental research effort,

specifically focusing on engagement factors in the

instructional design and evaluating the extent of

learner engagement in any technological intervention

endeavour, is seen as an advancement to what we

have in the present body of literature.

4 CONCLUSION

Although this exploratory nature of review is rather

short as compared to typical rigorous review as

employed by Çiftçi (2016), Clark et.al (2016), and

Svingby & Nilsson (2011) the review has put forward

the worthiness of considering engaging game designs

during the design and development processes of any

DGBL project. In response to the effort in combating

extreme deficiency of majority of Orang Asli

learners, responsively pedagogical approach,

focusing on engagement factors with the

incorporation of the cultural and social traits of Orang

Asli learners, needs to be applied by instructional

designers as the main design features for future

technology-enhanced projects.

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