Cognitive Instructional Design (CID) In Proficiency Oriented English

Instruction: The Design Principles

Yepi Sedya Purwananti

, Punaji Setyosari

, Bambang Yudi Cahyono

, Sulton

Graduate student of Universitas Negeri Malang, Malang, Indonesia

Instructional Technology Department, Universitas Negeri Malang, Malang, Indonesia

Keywords: Cognitive, Instructional Design, English, Proficiency, Principles

Abstract: English language instruction, as a foreign language, has specific characteristics comparing with other learning

instruction. The early language learning put cognitive as the basic of language learning. Learning theory is

intricately tied to Instructional Design (ID) which can be seen from the elements that branch from learning

theory and fit into the ID. Cognitive learning theory, as an early learning theory, focuses on explaining the

cognitive structures, processes and representations that mediate instruction and learning. In the process of

designing an instructional model, there are some principles that should be adapted. The four-phase cycle of

instruction proposed by Merril (2007) can be implemented in designing a Cognitive Instructional Design

(CID) in proficiency oriented English instruction. The four-phase cycle of instruction consists of

demonstration principle, application principle, activation principle and integration principle. This paper

discusses the application of four principles in designing proficiency oriented English instruction.

1 INTRODUCTION

English becomes the most important language to be

mastered since English is the first international

language used all over the world (Sharifian, 2009).

The recent condition shows that the importance of

English can be seen from many aspects of life that

require English proficiency. Data taken from English

Proficiency Index (EPI) shows that many countries

eager to improve their proficiency of English. In

2013, Indonesia is in 25th position while in 2015 is in

32nd position (First and First, 2015). Furthermore

English develops rapidly and very complex in our

life. This, of course, demands students’ mastery of

English to be able to go along with the development

in every sector of life. A country with better

proficiency in English will have better economic

condition as well (McCormick, 2013). This statement

indicates that English proficiency influences the

economic condition of a country. One of the examples

is Singapore, which is in higher level of proficiency

than Indonesia, has better economic development. So,

that is why many countries have some efforts to

improve the quality of English mastery of the citizen.

Hongkong, for instance, allocates millions of dollar to

design appropriate English instruction and implement

it in courses. Besides, a country with better English

proficiency level will be more innovative (Tran,

2015). English has been well developed in other

sectors including business and media (Lauder, 2010).

English proficiency becomes one of the requirements

for joining certain position in business and work field.

In media, most of expressions and communications

used in media are in English which is generally

understood by many people. Those examples show

that English proficiency plays important roles in this

life.

Looking at the importance of English, in

education field, the best model and approach of

teaching English is needed to be found and

implemented. More students, especially higher

education students, learn English in order to take

proficiency test rather than to learn English for

communication (Li, Zhong and Suen, 2012). In

Indonesia, some students in senior high school

prepare themselves to take English proficiency test in

order to help them enter qualified universities or

higher education. Furthermore, students of both

senior high school and higher education are interested

in taking English proficiency test to get standard

score in applying scholarship. Nowadays, there are

many kinds of proficiency test such as test of English

as Foreign Language (TOEFL), Test of English for

Purwananti, Y., Setyosari, P., Cahyono, B. and Sulton, .

Cognitive Instructional Design (CID) In Proﬁciency Oriented English Instruction: The Design Principles.

DOI: 10.5220/0008410002110215

In Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on Learning Innovation (ICLI 2018), pages 211-215

ISBN: 978-989-758-391-9

211

International Communication (TOEIC), International

English Language Testing System (IELTS), Business

English Certificate (BEC), and many more. One will

choose kind of the proficiency test based on his or her

need and purpose. In Indonesia, the most popular

proficiency test taken by the students is TOEFL

(Sulistyo, 2009). Meanwhile, approach and

instructional materials for English proficiency

oriented have not been discussed deeply.

In the process of learning, an individual will

change his or her knowledge or behaviour and it is

relatively permanent due to experience. Three major

learning theories that commonly used as the basis of

designing an instruction are behavioural, cognitive,

and social learning theories. Learning theory is used

as the framework in Instructional Design (ID). In

language instruction, cognitive theory is mostly used

as the approach of designing the instruction since in

the process of both acquiring and learning of

language, cognitive plays the most important roles

(Krashen, 1988). English proficiency oriented needs

special approach and design since the instruction

must be designed based on the need of getting

expected score of proficiency test.

2 METHOD

This study is classified into literature review using

meta-analysis method. Since the source of data are

taken from books and articles of current research

results, this study reveals the concept of proficiency

oriented of English instruction from the past time and

the progress of the proficiency orientation of English

instruction. There are three phases of the research;

collecting, analysing and synthetizing.

3 DISCUSSION

Instructional Design (ID) and Instructional System

Design (ISD) are two common terms used by the

designer or instructor in instruction. The definition of

Instructional design (ID) is varied in some ways but

most of the definitions highlight processes. (Smith

and Ragan, 2005) define Instructional Design as “the

systematic and reflective process of translating

principles of learning and instruction into plans for

instructional materials, activities, information sources

and evaluation”. This definition underlines ID’s

scientific foundations and range of products

emanating from ID projects. Meanwhile, (Dick,

2009) simply say that ID is ISD in which ISD process

covers analysis, design, development,

implementation, and evaluation.

In the other hand, Instructional Design (ID) is

interpreted as a facet of instruction. It covers the

process of deciding what methods of instruction are

best for bringing about desired changes in student

knowledge and skills for specific course content and

a specific student population (Reigeluth, 1983). In

this case, design is viewed as a planning activity.

Since design is a planning activity, it is suggested that

the teacher or designer needs to take into her/ his

consideration all possibilities of the factors that will

influence the instructional process and outcome.

Moreover, the success of an instruction is also

determined by the quality of the planning.

Some instructional design definitions emphasize

function more than process. Instructional design (ID)

is a systematic process that is employed to develop

education and training programs in a consistent and

reliable fashion (Branch and Kopcha, 2014). Teacher

also play his /her role as designer in education so

he/she knows better what problems are there in the

instruction and also what are the best programs to be

implemented in the class. This is also in line with the

definition of instructional design proposed by

(Reigeluth, 1983) where ID is defined as a body of

knowledge that prescribes instructional actions to

optimize desired outcomes, such as achievement and

affect (Reigeluth, 1983).

The scope of ID is a vast range of activity starting

from analysis through evaluation. To some designers,

ID processes are almost same as the various design

phases. ID knowledge relates to a wide variety of

topics that impact many parts of the design process.

(Richey, Klein and Monica, 2011) picture the ID into

six content domains; learners and learning processes,

learning and performance contexts, content structure

and sequence, instructional and non-instructional

strategies, media and delivery systems, and designers

and design processes (Richey, Klein and Monica,

2011). These domains encompass a broad array of

specific elements that play a role in ID. These

domains, however, are not distinct unto themselves,

and in many cases they overlap. From this case,

learning theory is commonly used as the basis of

designing an instruction.

The primary purpose of instructional design (ID)

is to facilitate learning and improve performance.

Facilitate means to give way or facilities in the

process of teaching and learning in order to enhance

the performance of the students. As a result, theories

which explain learning are extremely relevant to

designers and the field of knowledge base. Learning

theory includes understanding the role of human

ICLI 2018 - 2nd International Conference on Learning Innovation

212

behaviour and mental function of the mind. In

education field, there some learning theories such as

behavioural, cognitive and social learning theories

that commonly used in ID.

The most important aspect of cognitive learning

psychology for instructional designers relates to

promoting retention of learned material. Therefore,

there are two concepts in the implication of cognitive

concept for instructional- the role of practice and

specific techniques for storing and retrieving

information (Richey, 1986). Furthermore, in ID we

know three main models in designing an instruction;

conceptual model, procedural model and

mathematical model. (Richey, 1986) presents a

conceptual model of instructional design that draws

to a considerable extent on cognitive theory and

which requires the considerations of such factors as

students’ intelligence, cognitive style, cognitive

development, and information processing skills.

In brief, cognitive learning theory provides a large

part of the theoretical base of instructional design.

Learning theory remains a significant element in ID

practice, especially as it guides designers in the

selection of instructional solutions.

Principle is defined as a relationship that is always

true under appropriate conditions regardless of the

methods or models which implement this principle.

The effectiveness, efficiency, and engagement of a

particular model or method of instructions are

functioned of the degree to which these principles are

implemented. In this paper, the writer focuses on the

principles use in designing cognitive instructional

design for English proficiency oriented. Among the

existed principles, the four-phase cycle of instruction

is considered to be the most suitable principles on it.

The four-phase cycle consists of principles of

activation, demonstration, application, and

integration.

Activation principle states that learning is

promoted when learners activate relevant cognitive

structures by being directed to recall, describe, or

demonstrate relevant prior knowledge or experience.

Learning from activation is enhanced when learners

recall or acquire a structure of organizing the new

knowledge, when the structure is the basis for

guidance during demonstration, is the basis for

coaching during application, and is the basis for

reflection during integration.

Demonstration principle implies that learning is

promoted when learners observe a demonstration of

the skills to be learned that is consistent with the type

of content being taught. Learning from

demonstrations is enhanced when learners are guided

to relate general information or an organizing

structure to specific instances. Moreover, learning

from demonstration is enhanced when learners

observe media that is relevant to the content.

Application principle explains that learning is

promoted when learners engage in application of their

newly acquired knowledge or skill that is consistent

with the type of content to be taught. Besides,

learning is effective only when learners receive

intrinsic or corrective feedback. Then, learning from

an application is enhanced when learners are coached

and when this coaching is gradually withdrawn for

each subsequent task.

Integration principle states that learning is

promoted when learners integrate their new

knowledge into their everyday life by being directed

to reflect-on, discuss, or defend their new knowledge

or skill. Learning from integration is enhanced by

peer critique and when learners create, invent, or

explore personal ways to use their new knowledge or

skill. Furthermore, learning from integration is

enhanced when learners publicly demonstrate their

new knowledge or skill.

In CID for English proficiency oriented, those

four-phase principle can be implemented in order to

design the instruction in the classroom and also

strengthen it by giving more tasks outside the

classroom. The following is the example of the

implementation of the four-phase cycle in English

proficiency oriented instruction adopting TOEFL as

the most popular proficiency test in Indonesia.

Table 1 explains that in every section of English

proficiency test (listening, structure and written

expression, and reading) can be implemented in the

four-phase cycle. TOEFL, as proficiency test,

consists of listening comprehension, structure &

written expression, and reading comprehension. In

listening, there are three parts of the learners can start

it by knowing the concept of every part as the

activation phase then listen to common expression as

the demonstration phase. While in application phase,

the learners have exercises in listening and relate the

topic of the listening exercises with the daily

activities as the integration phase.

In structure and written expression, in activation

principle the learner can start by recalling the pattern

of sentence for simple and also complex sentence.

Practice the pattern sentence by identifying and

analysing sentences can be done in demonstration

phase. While in application phase, students can

implement the knowledge of pattern in finding the

appropriate word or phrase in doing structure and

written expression exercises. Furthermore, in

Cognitive Instructional Design (CID) In Proﬁciency Oriented English Instruction: The Design Principles

213

Table 1: Example of the four-phase cycle in proficiency oriented instruction.

Activation

Demonstration

Application

Integration

Listening

Recall the

concept of

conversation

Listen to the

common

expressions

Do exercises in

listening section

Relate the topic of

the listening section

Structure

& written

Expression

Recall pattern or

structure of

sentence

Practice the

sentence

structure

Do exercises in

sentence analysis

Relate to the

Structure of sentence

used

Reading

Theory of reading

Practice the theory

Do reading

exercises

Relate the topic of

reading passage

TASK Review of the learned materials do exercises

structure and written expressions section, the

activities of recognizing the error of sentence can be

practiced by relating the structure or pattern of

sentence in any English sources. This activity belongs

to integration phase.

In reading comprehension, remembering theory

of reading such as scanning and skimming can be

done in activation phase. This activity must be

supported by learners’ vocabulary mastery as

language component. After knowing the theory, the

students must be active in using the theory in

analysing text or passage. This activity is a part of

demonstrating theory. Since the TOEFL, paper and

pencil based TOEFL, all exercises are in form of

multiple choices. The students ought to practice more

and more in reading comprehension exercise as the

application phase. The topic of reading passages or

text can be related to daily activities or trending issues

to have integration phase of reading comprehension.

All the phases in four-phase principle must be

followed by tasks. The tasks can be in form of

reviewing the material and doing the exercises. To

strengthen the students’ proficiency, teacher can

design online learning to overcome time allocation

problem in face-to-face classroom instruction. The

four-phase principles can be implemented to improve

the quality of proficiency oriented English

instruction.

4 CONCLUSION

Learning theory is intricately tied to Instructional

Design (ID) in which it can be seen from the elements

that branch from learning theory and fit into the ID.

Cognitive as one of early theories commonly uses as

the approach in English proficiency oriented

teaching. Through the use cognitive theories,

designers can construct

appropriate design. The four-phase cycle of

instruction can be implemented in designing a

Cognitive Instructional Design (CID) in proficiency

oriented English instruction. The four-phase cycle of

instruction consists of demonstration principle,

application principle, activation principle and

integration principle.

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