Environmental Characteristics of Solar Photovoltaic Installations

Use, Considering Trends of Solar Energy Generation and Sustainable

Development

Aleksandra Grigorievna Polyakova

1,2*

, Vladimir Vladimirovich Kolmakov

Natalia Vladimirovna Gryzunova

and Oleg Igorevich Shutkin

Chair of Economics and Production Setup, Industrial University of Tyumen, Tyumen, Russian Federation

Department of Management, Financial University under the Government of the Russian Federation, Moscow, Russian

Federation

Department of Financial management, Plekhanov Russian University of Economics, Moscow, Russian Federation

Avelar Solar Technology, Moscow, Russian Federation

Keywords: renewable energy, solar energy, solar photovoltaic systems, sustainable development

Abstract: The paper contributes to the discussion on the matters of alternative and renewable energy sources integration,

considering the trends of current and future development of photovoltaic solar panel technology and

sustainability issues. Given the fact that sustainable development imposes strict requirements for the

technologies to be environment-friendly, this research has been undertaken to verify economic (in terms of

energy payback period) and ecological parameters (in terms of land use, air and water pollution, etc.) of solar

photovoltaic plants, in comparison to traditional energy sources and several other renewable technologies.

The key finding of the paper is the growing density of solar-power industry competition and almost total

match of it to the environmental requirements of the 21

century. The latter requirement shows the Russian

Federation’s sustainability undermined: directly – by the backlog of technology research and development,

and indirectly–by institutional and macroprudential regulations regarding solar-to-hydrocarbon technologies

competitiveness.

1 INTRODUCTION

A significant increase of the share of electricity

generated using renewable energy sources (RES) has

been among the main trends of the world’s energy-

generation development in the last decade. According

to the common global practices, RES include hydro,

solar, wind, geothermal, hydraulic energy, energy of

sea currents, waves and tides, energy of sea water

temperature gradient and air/water temperature

difference, energy of the Earth's heat, and the biomass

of different origin (organic, household waste).

However, the industrial scale of development and

commercial efficiency is attributable only to wind

energy, solar energy (primarily, based on

photoelectric conversion), water energy, biomass and

geothermal energy. Among all the types of RES,

solar-energy generation is the most rapidly-

developing and promising one.

According to some studies, by the mid-2050’s,

proved hydrocarbon reserves will be close to

depletion, thus making their upstream economically

irrational and causing solar energy and other

renewables’ growth to compensate for the decline in

energy generation. Solar energy is becoming

especially relevant, in the context of sustainable

development strategy and policy implementation.

Since 1987, when “Our Common Future” report

of the UN Commission on Environment and

Development (led by G.H. Brundtland, then

PrimeMinister of Norway), was published, the

sustainable-development theme has been widely

discussed. But still, being an object of methodology

research and political declarations, practical

implementation of its conceptual basics is far from

being implemented.

Sustainable development is defined as a new

mode of civilization based on radical changes in its

historically-developed parameters (social, ecological,

242

Polyakova, A., Kolmakov, V., Gryzunova, N. and Shutkin, O.

Environmental Characteristics of Solar Photovoltaic Installations Use, Considering Trends of Solar Energy Generation and Sustainable Development.

DOI: 10.5220/0008188202420249

In The Second International Conference on Materials Chemistry and Environmental Protection (MEEP 2018), pages 242-249

ISBN: 978-989-758-360-5

economic, etc.). It sets out the task of optimal

management of both natural resource potential and

the whole of society’s wealth, considering its future

state in a specific historical period. The priority in

achieving sustainable development is to ensure

decent living conditions for, and sustainable

development of, individuals. This broader

interpretation is, at the same time, a moral imperative,

a required model of the future, and a regulation that

needs to be practically implemented.

The sustainable development paradigm

incorporates research and design of new energy-

saving instruments and models of using renewable

environment-friendly energy sources.

Resolution of questions concerning the growth of

consumption has become an urgent task for the

survival of mankind, stretching to the end of the

century. Action is needed to restrain the consumption

of hydrocarbon fuels and encourage the use of non-

traditional energy sources, along with thermonuclear

and hydrogen energy research and development.

Further growth of hydrocarbon fuels consumption, in

combination with the demographic factor, would lead

to an ecological catastrophe and dehumanization of

society.

Sustainable development energy-generation

meets broader requirements than clean energy. The

concept of an ecologically-clean energy system

contains the requirement to employ inexhaustible and

environment-friendly resources. At the same time,

they must meet the two most important principles of

sustainable development: respect the interests of

future generations and preserve the environment.

Increasing emissions of carbon dioxide should

foster the development of industrial power generation

that employs clean, solar energy based on

photoelectric conversion, to reduce environmental

pollution and global warming. All these factors will

contribute to the growth of solar energy’s share up to

60% of the total energy consumption balance. The

amount of solar energy entering the Earth exceeds the

energy of all world reserves of oil, gas, coal and other

energy resources, including renewables. Its potential

is so great that, according to existing estimates, the

solar energy reaching Earth every hour is enough to

meet the current annual need for energy globally. In

this regard, the role of research aimed at revealing the

ecological characteristics of devices, used in solar

energy, is being updated.

2 ASSESSMENTOF SOLAR

PHOTOVOLTAIC FACILITIES’

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT

2.1 Ecological Parameters of Solar

Photovoltaic Facilities’ Impact

Depending on the principle of solar energy

conversion, power plants are divided into

photovoltaic (SPVP–solar photovoltaic plant) that

employ the method of direct (machine-free)

conversion of solar energy into electric energy using

photovoltaic converters (PVC), and thermodynamic

(STDP–solar thermodynamic plant) in which solar

energy is first converted into heat that is further

transformed in thermodynamic cycle tokinetic

energy, and then in a generator becomes electric

energy. The subject of this study is solar energy

generation based on photovoltaic conversion–a

rapidly growing industry and technology.

Special attention to environmental characteristics

is necessary since it is a key factor in decision making

on solar energy infrastructure development. This

infrastructure facilitates to significant decrease of

anthropogenic impact of modern civilization and its

ever-growing energy needs. Global best practices

indicate that an assessment of such a technology’s

impact is made using an integrated approach known

as “Life Cycle Assessment” (LCA) covering three

main stages that correspond to the proper

characteristics (see Table 1).

Table 1: Ecological characteristics appropriate to different

stages of an SPVP life-cycle (International Energy Agency,

2011)

Lifecycle stage

Characteristics

Manufacture

Toxic and contaminant materials used in

SPVP manufacture

Energy consumption, including energy

from thermal power plants

Water consumption and quality of its

filtration

Use

Energy efficiency of a technology – Energy

Payback Period, i.e. the period required for

a newly-activated energy system to

generate the same amount of energy (in

terms of primary energy equivalent) that

was used to produce the system itself

Pollution and environment contamination

indicators

Land and other natural resources use,

influence on biodiversity

Utilisation and

recycling

Safety of facility utilization after expiry or

failure

Environmental Characteristics of Solar Photovoltaic Installations Use, Considering Trends of Solar Energy Generation and Sustainable

Development

243

In case of SPVP, such analysis can be held in a

simplified mode, since it employs zero-emission

technology and requires almost no maintenance cost:

only stages of photovoltaic modules manufacture and

an SPVP setup require special attention, since they

entail raw-materials extraction and mining,

construction works, etc., as well as the recycling

stage, which is needed after an expected 25-year life

of a facility.

In case of using photovoltaic modules, based on

crystalline silicon technology (more than 80% of the

market), most of the electricity costs occur at the

stage of production of high-purity silicon of "solar

quality". Thin-film technologies require significantly

less energy to produce photovoltaic modules, since

the amount of semiconductor materials, required for

their production, is about 100 times smaller. In

addition to raw materials consumed to manufacture a

semiconductor layer of photovoltaic modules, one

also should consider aluminium, iron and zinc, since

they are used to produce special aluminium frames

and bearing constructions, sand for glass, copper for

cables and similar components to manufacture

inverters.

2.2 Toxic Materials Use in SPVP

Manufacture

There are several different technologies of

photovoltaic-modules manufacture, and each of them

employs different processes. The most common

hazardous chemicals involved in crystalline silicon

photovoltaic modules’ production are:

 silicon tetrachloride, which is a toxic waste of

crystalline silicon production using silane gas;

silicon tetrachloride can be recycled back into

silane, otherwise it is a potentially dangerous

substance;

 sulphur hexafluoride, used to purify the reactor

employed in silicon production; in the event of

leakage it emits a very strong greenhouse gas,

as also, it can react with silicon to create several

other potentially-hazardous compounds;

 a number of other chemicals used to purify

silicon and a photovoltaic converter.

Small quantities of aluminium and silver are also

consumed to manufacture components of an SPVP

module. The use of lead-based solder can cause

contamination problems, if these components are sent

to waste landfill, or incineration. Therefore, modern

manufacturers mainly use lead-free solder (Silicon

Valley Toxic Coalition, 2009).

It should be noted that the same materials and

substances are used in the manufacture of other

electronic products, such as computers and TVs;

Thus, the broadly-defined industry of electronic

components requires the development and

implementation of means of control over their

disposal, to solve potential ecological problems.

Thin-film technologies based on cadmium

telluride (CdTe) contain cadmium, which is one of the

most toxic substances. It is prohibited in some

countries (particularly in the EU), except when

cadmium is used in the form of cadmium telluride.

This is a stable, water-insoluble, non-metallic

compound, with a melting point of 1,050 degrees

centigrade, which eliminates the risk of adverse

effects on the environment proved by appropriate

tests. Notably, one NiCd battery for home appliances

contains 2,500 times more cadmium than one

photovoltaic module; production of 1 kWh of

electricity by a coal-powered generation facility emits

360 times more cadmium than is contained in

photovoltaic modules needed to produce 1 kWh of

electricity (Silicon Valley Toxic Coalition, 2009).

2.3 Water Use

Electricity production is a process associated with the

intensive use of water resources. In the US, electricity

production accounts for more than 40 percent of all

daily freshwater consumption. SPVPs do not require

water for power generation. Zero water consumption

provides SPVP with an additional advantage in those

places where there is a shortage of water, since it does

not put additional pressure on local water resources

(Union of concerned scientists, 2013). Nevertheless,

when analysing this factor over the whole life cycle

of an SPVP, it is necessary to consider that water is

used for PV modules production, as for other

manufacturing processes, although its consumption is

minimal. Studies have reported that water

consumption throughout the life cycle of an SPVP is

minimal (no more than 15 litres per MWh), compared

to other electricity generation technologies. The only

technology that has lower water consumption is wind

energy technology (4 litres per MWh). Significantly-

higher amounts of water consumption are attributable

to coal-based generation (1140 litres per MWh),

nuclear power (1500 litres per MWh), hydrocarbons

(1100 litres per MWh)(Canada Clean Energy Fund,

2013).

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2.4 Energy Efficiency and CO

Emission Decrease

According to the majority of experts, the value of

"energy payback period" (EPBT) for an SPVP, in the

current phase of technology development, is about 1.3

years with a service life of at least 25 years

(Greenpeace, 2012). In fact, this is an equivalent of

Energy Return on investment (EROI) at 1:19, which

makes this technology equal in efficiency to oil and

gas upstream (from 1:19 to 1:32 depending on the

degree of recovery). Due to technological

improvement, this indicator for an SPVP has

significantly improved over the past 5 years.

According to some studies, any technology in the

energy sector must beat the 1:14 indicator to be

efficient in the long run (Lambert et al., 2012). Thus,

it can be stated that, during approximately 23 of 25

years of an SPVP’s lifecycle, it generates electricity

without any emissions into the environment.

Several sources say that the harmful emissions of

SPVPs, based on the most energy-consuming

technology of crystalline silicon, are equal to 33-50

g/kWh of CO

equivalent (for thin-film technologies,

this value is 18 g/kWh), while coal-consuming power

plants emit 796.7 g/kWh, fuel oil-consuming plants –

525 g/kWh, and gas-consuming plants – 377 g/kWh.

Judging by this indicator, solar energy has about 10-

20 times less impact on the environment for the entire

life-cycle period (Greenpeace, 2012). Moreover, as

mentioned above, major emissions occur at the stage

of photovoltaic modules and other SPVP

components’ production (Table 2).

Combustion of hydrocarbon fuel remains the

world leader of harmful emissions into the

atmosphere. Solar energy, in most cases, is perceived

as a technology with practically zero emissions,

which is confirmed by calculations. Some studies also

analyse the effect of SPVPs on harmful emissions to

the atmosphere, throughout the life cycle. They

indicate that throughout SPVP’s entire life-cycle, the

unit emission of greenhouse gas varies from 16 to 86

grams of CO

equivalent per kWh generated, while

replacement of fossil fuels can deliver reduction in

emissions from 650 to 850 grams of CO

equivalent

per kWh (Ministry of New and Renewable Energy,

2013).

Thus, we conclude that SPVPs have a significant

positive effect on reducing harmful emissions to the

atmosphere, throughout the life cycle of the plant,

while their energy payback indicator is currently the

same as hydrocarbon recovery technologies,

considering their gradual depletion and deterioration

in recoverability.

2.5 Land Use

Depending on the location and type of an SPVP, the

environmental impact, regarding this criterion,

should be assessed in different ways. Thus, large

SPVPs, located on the ground, can cause risk of land

degradation and habitat loss for local fauna. A site

area required varies, depending on the technology,

terrain specific, the site shape, the latitude and other

factors. On average, the required area for an SPVP

placement is 2 to 4 hectares per 1 MW of power.

When placed on artificial surfaces, e.g. on the roof of

a building, an SPVP does not require additional

space.

Land use parameters of SPVPs raise concerns

about the potential impact of such projects on land

and on natural habitats of fauna. This issue is resolved

through regulated examination of each project.

Preference is given to projects that are located on land

plots of various abandoned facilities (airports, mines

etc.). In this case the potential environmental impact

can be significantly reduced and even have a positive

effect of land rehabilitation and economic

reactivation of abandoned land.

Critics of solar energy often claim that SPVPs

require more land than traditional generation

technologies such as coal and natural gas. Similar

criticisms are also put forward against wind farms.

Nevertheless, certain evidence has been published

that large SPVPs in areas with high solar insolation

use less ground than some traditional energy sources,

such as coal generation, considering the use of land

throughout the life cycle of the technology (for

example, the land required for development of coal

mines). Considering the extraction, transportation

and utilization of non-renewable energy sources in

calculating the required land area, SPVPs become

comparable in this regard. At the same time,

installations located on the roof do not take any

additional space at all, while their share in the total

installed capacity of solar energy is more than 80%.

A comparison of the use of land for various

technologies is presented in Table 3.

Traditional energy sources use is often associated

with soil acidification, through precipitation from

hydrogen, sulphates, nitrates of sulphuric acid, nitric

acid and acid rain. Acid precipitation is mainly due to

the combustion of fossil fuels. Rehabilitation of lands

contaminated by acid precipitation or harmful

substances can take decades and, in some cases, even

centuries.

Environmental Characteristics of Solar Photovoltaic Installations Use, Considering Trends of Solar Energy Generation and Sustainable

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245

Table 2: Unit energy consumption by different components of an SPVP.

Silicon

Ingot

Plate

Cell

Other

components

SPVP

Electricity

consumed

80-150

kWh/kg

7-9 kWh/kg

2 kWh/kg

0,15-0,2

kWh/W

0,02 kWh/W

0,15 kWh/W

Electricity

consumption share

56-72 %

4-5 %

2-3 %

12-14 %

1-2 %

9-20 %

Compiled by authors from (Greenpeace, 2012)

Table 3: Comparative data on the land use by different energy generation technologies.

Energy sources

Land use, square meters per

MWh

Remarks

Natural gas thermal facility

0,45

Not including land use for fuel

production

Coal thermal power plant

4,4-5,8

Nuclear power plant

6,0

SPVP

9,0-14,3

Windfarm (land may be shared with

agriculture)

69-94

Not including possible land use

shared with agriculture

Hydroelectric power station

122

Biomass thermal power station

360-488

Not including land used to store

organic waste

Compiled by authors from (CanadaCleanEnergyFund, 2013)

Compared with traditional types of energy

generation, soil acidification from an SPVP during its

life-cycle is insignificant. One should consider only

power-generation required to produce components of

solar power plants (Canada Clean Energy Fund,

2013).

2.6 Influence on Biological Diversity

Assessing the negative impact on flora and fauna, it

is necessary to consider each project separately, since

the degree of this influence strongly depends on local

conditions and features. There are cases when the

territory around SPVPs is used for other needs, like

grazing.

Recent studies have shown that construction of

large SPVPs can have a positive impact on the

landscape, natural conditions, flora and fauna in

comparison with the production of electricity based

on fossil fuels. SPVPs have a significant potential for

positive impact on local flora and fauna. They can

contribute to depopulation of undesirable species,

while ensuring appropriate conditions for the habitat

of endemic species (Turney & Fthenakis, 2011).

In December 2010, the German Renewable

Energy Agency completed a draft study on the impact

of SPVPs on biodiversity. The results show that

SPVPs can increase the number of species in a given

area. When SPVPs are designed responsibly, they can

create new habitats for endangered animals and plants

and engage abandoned, or unused, land in economic

cycle. In 2005, the German Nature Conservation

Association and the Solar Energy Association of

Germany developed requirements that should be met

in the design and construction of an SPVP (Canada

Clean Energy Fund, 2013):

 local environment monitoring and

compensatory measures after implementation

of an SPVP project;

 local environmental planning specialists’

involvement;

 soil sealing (i.e. covering with an impermeable

material) tolerance of not more than 1% of the

surface;

 correct choice of crops, to ensure the

preservation of local genetic diversity;

 avoiding negative consequences of fencing-out

a plant;

 development of an appropriate environmental-

monitoring program for an SPVP location.

2.7 Safe Utilization and Recycling

After an SPVP (and particularly its photovoltaic

modules life cycle) expires, as well as of any other

electronic equipment, it is necessary to provide for the

possibility of recycling. Notably, recycling and

utilization are the most important issues, from the

environmental impact point of view. Appropriate

MEEP 2018 - The Second International Conference on Materials Chemistry and Environmental Protection

246

legislation has been adopted, or is being developed,

in many countries. Major manufacturers of

photovoltaic modules announced programs of free

disposal of faulty items. They joined the European

initiative PVCYCLE, which aims to increase the

utilization rate to 85% by 2020. The first large

enterprise specialized in photovoltaic cells processing

was opened in 2009, as part of the PVCYCLE

program.

Obviously, development of solar energy

production, based on photovoltaic conversion, has

much less negative environmental impact than

traditional power generation based on the combustion

of fossil fuels. Comparing SPVPs with traditional

methods of power generation, in terms of the impact

on the environment, it can be postulated that the

amount of harmful emissions into the atmosphere and

waste is insignificant: water consumption is minimal

throughout the life cycle. Land resources use, albeit

being significant, influences soil condition slightly

and does not require further rehabilitation.

On the other hand, growth of the solar power plant

industry may have its own environmental

consequences. For example, increasing the

production of photovoltaic modules, considering the

need for operation and disposal, can create a large

volume of so-called electronic waste. The

decommissioning phase of an SPVP life-cycle is the

most important, regarding the environmental impact

assessment. Nevertheless, programs of photovoltaic

modules’ utilization have already been launched and

have shown their efficiency in reducing the harmful

impact on the environment.

Certainly, taking a decision to stimulate the

development of solar energy based on photovoltaic

conversion, it is necessary to consider all the

characteristics described above: technical, socio-

economic and environmental. It should be noted that,

regarding the explicit advantages, technical and

ecological issues of solar energy should contribute to

its demand and make it a significant part of the world

energy generation, although it cannot become the

only source of energy due to several known

constraints. At the same time, assessment of solar

energy potential, competitiveness and consequences

of its development from the ecological and economic

point of view enables us to make a balanced decision

on the necessity of its development, considering the

possible supply and demand in a specific territory of

the Russian Federation.

Comparative characteristics of the main technical,

economic and environmental issues regarding all

major types of energy are listed in Table 4.

Table 4: Main power generation technologies compared across generalized technical, economic and environmental

characteristics.

Characteristics (positive)

Main energy generation technologies

Traditional

Renewable

Thermal

Nuclear

Hydro

Wind

SPVP

Small

hydro

Bio

Geothermal

Technical

Potentially inexhaustible source

Distributed generation - closer to

the consumer

+/-

Dispatchability, no need to

accumulate

+/-

High concentration of production

Co-generation (generation of

thermal energy of high potential)

Potential for further development

of technology

+/-

Economic

Independence from fossil fuels

Potential to reduce production

costs

+/-

Ecological

Zero emission and waste during

generation

+/-

Minimal damage to water and land

resources

+/-

Environmental Characteristics of Solar Photovoltaic Installations Use, Considering Trends of Solar Energy Generation and Sustainable

Development

247

It is obvious, that SPVPs are not the best power-

generation technology, given the capacity constraints,

ecological issues and, for example, demand-side

factors like intermittency. Still, the comparative

features of available technologies enhance the search

for their optimum combination, to cover the needs of

a specific territory.

The photovoltaics industry is experiencing an

exponential growth worldwide, which becomes

another determinant of the development

sustainability. This time, it is in economic terms of a

country’s competitiveness. Countries of Europe,

North America and Asia deploy projects aimed to

support the mainstream of photovoltaic industry

development (see the USA “Million Solar Roofs”

project, or the Chinese 2011 five-year-plan for energy

production, which included renewables). The

technology is being researched, mastered, improved

and patented, which makes it more difficult to

replicate, but easier to promote and sell abroad. In this

context, the Russian segment of photovoltaic industry

can rapidly lose its pace, especially in the household-

supply segment of the market (Akhmetshin et al.,

2018), and be ranked far behind the world’s leaders,

which are manufacturing SPVPs at much lower cost.

Although forecasts on the photovoltaic growth are

unclear and difficult to compile, there is an ascending

worldwide trend in the use of photovoltaics: today,

China takes the first place in photovoltaics power

production, while India and the US are expected to

be, along with China, the largest markets for solar

photovoltaics installations in the next decade

(European Photovoltaic Industry Association, 2014).

Forecasts say, “by 2022, global photovoltaic

generation capacity will likely reach 871 gigawatts.

That is about 43 gigawatts more than the expected

cumulative wind installations by that date. Also, it is

more than double today's nuclear capacity” (Lacey,

2017).

Further evidence of the rapid growth of the

photovoltaic industry, found in the latest IEA report,

stating that its earlier forecasts underestimated the PV

deployment: SPVP deployment costs reduction and

growing fashion all over the world made IEA re-

evaluate the 2050-forecast of photovoltaics share in

the global energy generation from 11% stated in 2011

up to 16% stated in 2014 (International Energy

Agency, 2014). Forecast verification can easily be

found in regional prospects. The Clean Edge research

indicates that “the solar contribution could be quite

considerable, realistically reaching 10 percent of total

U.S. electricity generation by 2025, by deploying a

combination of solar photovoltaics and concentrating

solar power” (Clean Edge, 2008). Moreover,

according to regional forecasts, long-term growth is

anticipated in China, India and Japan.

The Russian Federation’s programs of sustainable

development declare changes in the balance of energy

delivered and consumed, but the industrial side

stumbles due to several institutional (Nestereko et al.,

2018) and macroprudential (Ekimova et al., 2017)

constraints that need to be overcome.

3 CONCLUSIONS

Solar energy from SPVPs meets the basic

requirements of sustainable development: energy

security, accessibility and environmental friendliness.

Considering the high potential of technology

development and cost reduction, this type of energy

is the most promising one. At the same time, the

obvious technical advantages of traditional energy

generation (dispatchability, high concentration of

production, the possibility of co-generation) make it

indispensable in terms of providing energy to industry

and large cities, which is attributable to the industrial

stage of civilization development.

In the context of post-industrialization and de-

urbanization, which responded to the challenges of

the new century, solar energy along with other

renewable energy generation technologies can

become one of the technological and infrastructural

bases for development of the new-mode economy and

society in the Russian Federation.

Given the speed of these processes’ development,

as well as the obvious need to preserve industrial

potential during the post-industrial era, solar energy

development will need to be rationally combined with

traditional energy sources, the latter gradually

decreasing its share in the energy balance.

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