The Role of Children’s Emotions during Design-based Learning

Activity

A Case Study at a Dutch High School

Feiran Zhang, Panos Markopoulos and Tilde Bekker

Eindhoven University of Technology, Eindhoven, The Netherlands

Keywords: Design-based Learning, Emotion, Child.

Abstract: Design-based learning (DBL) is attracting increasing attention for its potential to support informal learning,

and as a way to enhance science and technology education at schools. However, related research has not yet

considered the emotions children experience during DBL and how these affect the learning process. We report

a case study aimed at developing a deeper understanding of children’s emotional experience during DBL. In

total 9 children (12-13 years old) are involved in this case study. In order to assess children’s emotions during

DBL lessons we used a self-reporting non-verbal instrument (the emotion card, which adapted from Five

Degrees of Happiness Smiley Face Likert) and a verbal instrument (the Geneva Emotion Wheel

Questionnaire, which contains 16 emotions). In addition, a group interview probed into the role of children’s

emotion during DBL. We discuss the methodological challenges exposed in this study, which will need to be

addressed in future studies regarding the measurement of children’s emotions in DBL.

1 INTRODUCTION

Design-based Learning (DBL), Learning-by-Design,

and Learning through Design are related approaches

to learning that apply the tenets of Design Thinking

(Rowe, 1987) in a problem or project-based learning

context. In general, DBL involves open exploration,

learning from trial and error, reflection, teamwork

and supportive tools. Following the growing trend of

computer supported education, DBL increasingly

employs technology-based tools, e.g, Scratch,

Littlebits, LEGO education kits, and MakeyMakey

etc., to support its design and learning process.

It is well known in education research that

emotion plays a vital role in the learning process.

Firstly, emotion is known to affect student’s effort,

motivation and commitment to their academic works

(Skinner et al., 2014). Secondly, emotion can trigger

student’s recall of memories and influence on

student’s cognitive evaluation of events or memories

(Efklides and Volet, 2005). Emotion is also deemed

to modify the choice of learning strategies and the

level of self-regulation in learning (Pekrun, 2014).

Accordingly, for DBL activities, emotions play a

big part both as an outcome (e.g., in the case of

successes or failures, or of group based interactions),

as well as a factor that influences learning.

Nevertheless, some characteristics of DBL, in

contrast to traditional education, may lead to distinct

emotions and consequent impacts on the learning

process. For example, student may frequently

experience failure when building and testing their

prototypes or design ideas. However, rather than

resulting in a negative emotion (e.g. disappointed or

anxiety, etc.), such an episode may generate curiosity,

excitement, or being motivated to explore new design

solutions. Consequently, the effect of such an episode

on their learning process could turn out to be positive.

This research sets out to understand such

emotional facets of DBL when integrated into formal

education for children. As is known, school is a major

part of children’s life where emotions can be very

vivit: children are often evaluated; they experience

friendship, belonging, but they may also have

negative interactions with other children.

To this point, little is known about the interplay

between children’s emotions and DBL from existing

literature. We engage in an exploratory case study

where we pose one central research question (Q0):

What is the role of children’s emotions during DBL?

This was addressed in three sub-questions:

Q1: How do children undergo emotions during

198

Zhang, F., Markopoulos, P. and Bekker, T.

The Role of Children’s Emotions during Design-based Learning Activity.

DOI: 10.5220/0006667901980205

In Proceedings of the 10th International Conference on Computer Supported Education (CSEDU 2018), pages 198-205

ISBN: 978-989-758-291-2

DBL activity?

Q2: How do DBL activities affect children

emotions?

Q3: How do children’s emotion influence their

DBL activity?

These questions are addressed in the context of a

case study, where a DBL activity was introduced in a

classroom with children aged 12-13. The setup and

methodologies used in this paper aim to contribute to

research on engaging children in DBL in the future.

Furthermore, with the understanding of children’s

emotions in this context, this paper will generate

insights for research on developing affective

interventions for the process and research on

improving DBL experience.

2 RELATED WORK

There is currently an increasing research interest in

approaches to learning that are described as, DBL

(Nelson, 2004), Learning-by-Design (Kolodner,

2002), or Learning through Design (Resnick and

Stephen, 1990). As a pedagogical approach, all these

interchangeable terms have been shown to make a

positive contribution to motivation and learning

performance. Researches even have been conducted

to describe the main characteristics of DBL, including

characteristics for organizing DBL in higher

engineering education (Puente et al., 2013) and for

teaching children digital literacy (Bekker et al.,

2015).

On the whole, related research demonstrated that

DBL can have a positive effect on children’s learning

activity. Research reported by Giannakos et al. (2014)

demonstrates that enjoyment had no effect on

students’ intention to participate in similar DBL

activities in the future, while happiness had a positive

effect and anxiety had a negative effect.

In the following sub-sections, we clarify the

context of this research (see section 2.1), describe the

groups of emotion in learning addressed by literature

(see section 2.2) and summarize existing

measurements for tracking emotion (see section 2.3).

2.1 DBL Characteristics

In order to deepen the multilayered understanding of

a DBL activity, and also ensure the external validity

of the study, we settled on a list of criteria that DBL

should match via synthesizing DBL characteristics

from previous relevant studies. The structure of these

criteria follows the framework of the curricular spider

web (Van den Akker et al., 2010). These are detailed

below.

1) The characteristic of Learning Activity, which

is framed with four aspects: It is open-ended and has

enough flexibility, with an authentic context and real-

life scenarios; with multidisciplinary knowledge and

skills; and with a design process.

2) The characteristic of Teacher Role is that

teacher acts as a coach who enables the student to

become an active learner.

3) The characteristic of Grouping, which is made

up of two aspects: children should share a sense of

responsibility; and are expected to communicate and

collaborate with peers and stakeholders.

4) The characteristic of Materials and Resource,

which is composed of two aspects: using hands-on

materials and resources for prototyping or testing and

using minds-on materials and resources for

empathizing, defining or ideating.

In conclusion, the above four characteristics will

all run throughout the case study reported in this

paper.

2.2 Emotions in Learning

In the introduction section, we already emphasized

the importance of considering emotion under the

learning context. But what emotions are frequently

triggered in a general learning context? Pekrun’s

(2014) research on student’s emotions and learning

does not target at a specific age group, but proposed

four groups of academic emotions especially relevant

for students’ learning: Achievement, Epistemic,

Topic and Social emotions.

In short, Pekrun’s taxonomy of learning emotion

provides a macro guidance, which can be potentially

used for qualitative analysis of emotion data in a DBL

context.

2.3 Measuring Emotion

Measuring emotions during DBL brings theoretical

and practical challenges, because the nature of

emotion is complex. The knowledge that guides the

study of emotions will also influence data collection

and interpretation (Rienties and Rivers, 2014). But

after all, tracking learner’s emotion as an approach to

learning analytics offers an opportunity for

educational stakeholders and researchers for

understanding and improving the learning experience

(Rienties and Rivers, 2014).

In the sub-sections below, we extract from the

literature several emotion data gathering approaches,

The Role of Children’s Emotions during Design-based Learning Activity

199

which we believe can be applicable to measuring

emotions in DBL.

2.3.1 Self-report Measures

In general, one advantage of self-reports is that they

can help collect emotion data that cannot be observed

directly. Researchers can obtain such data from

respondents at relatively low cost, e.g. using paper-

and-pen rating scale surveys, questionnaire sand

interviews etc. The disadvantage of self-reports is

also that sometimes data collected by them is biased

or unreliable.

Rating scales are widely applied to obtain self-

reports. Examples that could be completed by

children are the verbal self-report instrument --

Geneva Emotion Wheel (Scherer, 2005), and the non-

verbal self-reports -- Self-Assessment Manikin

(Bradley and Lang, 1994), and Five Degrees of

Happiness Smiley Face Likert (Hall et al., 2016).

With regard to Geneva Emotion Wheel (GEW), it was

developed to measure respondent’s experiences

(Scherer et al., 2013) in diverse contexts, which may

include learning. The Self-Assessment Manikin, a

pictorial assessment, is widely applied also for the

purpose of measuring learner’s emotions. A Smiley

Face Likert (SFL) scale named the Five Degrees of

Happiness is a child-centred instrument mainly for

measuring emotional reactions in child computer

interaction.

On the other hand, Subtle Stone (Balaam et al.,

2010) is a technical and tangible instrument for

children aged 12 to 13. It allows children self-report

seven emotions in the classroom in real-time.

Questionnaires are also a popular self-report

measurement for a learning context, e.g., the

Achievement Emotions Questionnaire (Pekrun et al.,

2011). It was designed precisely for assessing adult

learner’s achievement emotion.

2.3.2 Measures Other than Self-report

Non self-report measurements can be used instead of

self-report measures where these are difficult to

obtain or where they might introduce bias. They can

be used together with self-report for triangulation

purposes to gain a multifaceted understanding of

children’s emotions or to check the reliability of self-

reports. However, these methods are more time-

consuming than self-reports (Encyclopedia.com.,

2008). Such instruments may be various:

Language processing is a form of measurement

for detecting learner’s emotion in text. Linguistic

Inquiry and Word Count (Pennebaker et al., 2015) is

one of the examples.

Computer recognition of facial expression is

another form of measurement, e.g. using the Facial

Action Coding System (Ekman and Rosenberg,

1997), and Facial Expression Analysis Tool (Kaiser

and Wehrle, 2001).

3 METHOD

For the external validity of our study, we ensured that

the main characteristics of DBL would be included in

the lesson plan for the study. We constructed a DBL

lesson plan, spanning a two-week period for a total of

100 minutes of classroom time. In total 9 children

aged 12 to 13 involved in this study, while some of

them were involved in the first DBL lesson and some

in the second DBL (see Table 1.). A team of two

researchers acted as facilitators in the classroom and

collected data through two emotion instruments

(described in more detail in section 3.2), audio

recordings and video recordings.

3.1 Task

In this study, all children worked in pairs and were

given the design challenge: “to design a school

experience for your partner”. This learning activity

was designed after a d.school (Hasso Plattner institute

of Design at Stanford) course assignment about

redesigning the gift-giving experience for their

partner, and was embedded into our DBL framework.

DBL materials and resources in this study included

the d.school crash course workbook, and both new

(e.g. LEGO education kits, Littlebits.) and traditional

(e.g. clay, color papers, tapes, etc.) materials.

The procedure of two sequential DBL lessons in

our case study is adapted from the design thinking

process proposed by d.school (see Figure 1, the

colorful blocks are set up by d.school while the grey

blocks are added by us). Apart from two warming-up

sessions (i.e. team building and introduction), in total

six main DBL sessions were carried out in order.

In addition to taking part in these DBL activities,

children used two instruments to report their emotions

during DBL. Then, we conducted a follow-up group

interview at the end of the second lesson. See

milestones of this activity in Figure 1. At the end of

the activity we offered a gift to children to thank them

for their participation.

3.2 Measures

In this study, we focused on self-report instrument

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on account of its superiority on measuring children’s

subjective experience of their own feelings and

behaviors, but also for its efficiency.

We devised an emotion card based on the Five

Degrees of Happiness SFL, a simple non-verbal self-

report instrument which they could complete

efficiently during the DBL. We also used a follow-up

verbal self-report instrument (i.e. GEW

questionnaire), with which children are able to

express their emotions freely. Although some

previous studies already applied GEW in the field of

learning, it has not been applied in the DBL context

before. Moreover, we also used for the first time

emotion cards based on Five degrees of Happiness

SFL under the context of DBL.

3.2.1 Emotion Card

In order that the card looks attractive to fill and easy

to understand, we adapted Five Degrees of Happiness

SFL (Hall et al., 2016). We used it for evaluating

children’s event emotion before the end of each

session, as shown in Figure 2. At the end of each

session, they were required to circle one among 5-

pointing scale to report their overall feeling.

Figure 2: Example of emotion card in this study.

Researchers handed out and collected emotion cards

after every single session. Emotion cards from all 6

sessions were collected (see Figure 1.): Empathize,

Define, Ideate, Prototype, Test, and Present.

3.2.2 GEW Questionnaire

There are two reasons for embedding the Geneva

Emotion Wheel (GEW) into our questionnaire: First,

the emotion families in GEW cover almost all

emotions, representing the dimensions of valence and

control/power respectively; Second, participants are

not required to recall any vocabulary to describe their

emotional experience, but only asked to identify an

experienced or imagined emotion among the various

options provided (Scherer et al., 2013).

We made some adaptations for using this

instrument with children. We chose to decrease the

number of intensity degrees from four in the GEW

Figure 3: Adapted GEW version 1.0 in this study.

Figure 1: DBL procedure in this study (adapted from the design thinking process of d.school.

The Role of Children’s Emotions during Design-based Learning Activity

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version 1.0 (Scherer, 2005) into three levels (see

Figure 3), in order to decrease the complexity of

distinguishing intensity differences for children.

Furthermore, we combined this adapted GEW version

1.0 with an open-ended question as supplementary for

examining children’s emotions and experience during

DBL activities.

3.2.3 Group Interview with Children

In the end, researchers used a face-to-face group

interview. In the phase of the interview, questions

concerning their answers on the emotion cards and

questionnaires were asked. We held two parallel

group interviews among two groups by two

researchers under the guideline of a group interview

protocol.

4 RESULTS

The central research question (Q0) and three sub

research questions (Q1, Q2, Q3) are in both

quantitative and qualitative results. The answer to Q1

is linked to section 4.1.1 and 4.2.2, Q2 can be found

in section 4.2.1, and Q3 is explained in section 4.2.3.

With respect to Q0, section 4.1.2 where presenting the

changes of children’s emotion state during DBL, is a

supplementary part on the basis of the answer to Q1,

Q2, and Q3. The data collection process includes the

emotion card survey, the GEW questionnaires,

interviews, observations, documents, and audio-

visual materials. In order to ensure anonymity of the

materials the children would deliver, every child was

assigned with an avatar which they used to ‘sign’ their

work and the emotion questionnaires they completed.

4.1 Quantitative Results

The quantitative data sources come from emotion

card survey and the GEW part in the questionnaire.

4.1.1 Undergoing Emotions

Children selected between 1 and 5 emotions and used

only 7 of the 16 categories in the GEW. Most of the

children undergo joy, and some of them undergo

elation, pride, satisfaction, and a few of children

undergo surprise, while only one child experienced

shame and another child experienced anger during

DBL. Among these selected emotions, most (5/7)

locate in the positive quadrant, except for shame and

anger. In the meanwhile, most of (5/7) these emotions

locate in the high control quadrant, except for shame

and surprise.

Within two DBL lessons, a total of 13 valid

responses (8 in the 1st lesson, 5 in the 2nd lesson)

from the GEW questionnaire were collected. Since

children selected between 1 and 5 emotions, these 13

pieces of valid responses amount to 33 ‘votes’ in 7

different emotions. See details in Table 1. Participants

participating in both lessons are in shaded cells. The

abbreviations and marks in Table 1 and Table 2 are

interpreted as: Jo (Joy), Sh (Shame), Su (Surprise), Pr

(Pride), El (Elation), An (Angry), Sa (Satisfaction); +

(high intensity), * (medium intensity), - (low

intensity).

Table 1: 13 pieces of GEW questionnaire in two DBL

lessons.

Participant In the first lesson In the second

lesson

Mickey Jo+ Jo+

Minnie Jo+ Jo+

Donald Jo+, Sh- N/A

Daisy Jo+, Su+ N/A

Winnie Pr+, El*, An+ N/A

Piglet Jo+, Pr*, El+ N/A

Bambi Jo+, Pr+, El+ Jo+, Pr+, El+, Sa+

Thumper Jo+, Pr+, El+ Jo+, Pr+, El+, Sa+,

Su+

Simba N/A Jo+, Pr+, El+, Sa+

4.1.2 Changes of Emotion during DBL

We quantified the scales in our emotion card as a

value ranging from 1 to 5 according to the degree of

happiness. Based on that, a descriptive statistic result

is presented in Table 2. This result includes 24 valid

responses from 8 participants involving in the session

of Empathize, Define, and Ideate, and 15 valid

responses from 5 participants involving in the session

of Prototype, Test, and Present.

Table 2: Descriptive statistic result: 39 pieces of emotion

card.

Session mean sd IQR n

Empathize 3.9 1.5 2.00 8

Define 4.6 0.5 1.00 8

Ideate 4.8 0.5 0.25 8

Prototype 5.0 0.0 0.00 5

Test 5.0 0.0 0.00 5

Present 5.0 0.0 0.00 5

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However, only 4 participants have taken part in

the entire six DBL sessions, while the remaining

participants were absent from some sessions for some

personal reasons (e.g. sick leave, etc.). In order to

probe their emotion changes during an entire DBL

unit, we only analyzed the data of emotion changes

over six sessions from aforementioned 4 participants.

The curve of emotion changes displays as the Figure

4 below. As is seen, all participants reported the

highest degree of happiness as from taking part in the

prototype session and all the sessions after the

prototype session. These curves showed a broad

tendency of rising.

4.2 Qualitative Results

The comments collected through the open questions

and during the group interview were transcribed and

analysed thematically by the first author. Three major

following themes emerged which are discussed

below.

4.2.1 Affective Elements in DBL

Considering the curriculum components framework

(Van den Akker et al., 2010), our data suggest that

some components of this framework have a positive

effect on children’s emotions during DBL. For

instance, children were affected by the DBL content.

Some children think the subject in the Empathize

session was interesting, while others did not feel

excited at all by it. Some children were less interested

in the subject in the Ideation session. Secondly, the

DBL learning activity also affected children. Almost

all children reported that the Prototyping session was

their favourite one. Some children liked drawing their

design idea and some were fond of showing their

design project to others. Thirdly, the role of DBL

facilitator/teacher proved to have a positive effect. A

supportive facilitator made children feel joy; this

finding is in line with the expectation in (Penuel et al.,

2016) that children’s enjoyment increases with the

teacher’s ability to help them connect lessons to the

unit challenge in DBL. Fourthly, the grouping

component in DBL also affected them. Children

considered working with friends makes them feel joy

in line with earlier studies (Carroll et al., 2010;

Giannakos and Jaccheri, 2013) that suggested that

enjoyment is enhanced when working with peers.

Fifth, the DBL material and resources had an

affective impact. For instance, LEGO bricks which

some children used to build their prototype made

them feel good. This statement resonates with (Barak

and Doppelt, 1999) who concluded that LEGO is a

factor making children feel curious presented in the

previous studies.

Finally, the time setting caused a negative

emotional response: children found that starting at 4

p.m. as we did was too late and were not happy about

it.

4.2.2 Emotions in DBL

Children reported several emotions using the verbal

instrument: the emotion of joy, elation, pride,

satisfaction, surprise, shame, and anger. Due to lack

explanation by the children about the experience of

feeling shame and anger, we would not discuss the

emotion of shame further in this paper. Hence, we

only classified the rest of 5 emotions into the

taxonomy (see section 2.2) of academic emotion

proposed by (Pekrun, 2014) for a further discussion.

First, pride was a prominent achievement

emotion. Most children were proud of their own

ideas, their drawings, and prototypes. Some children

felt pride in themselves and even in their partner when

receiving the design solution form their partner.

Second, in the epistemic emotion theme, feelings of

surprise were highlighted. Some children were

surprised when they performed better than they had

expected on tasks, while one child realized with a

feeling of a surprise this lesson was much more fun

than she thought. Third, on the topic emotion theme,

the feelings of satisfaction, joy, and elation were

prominent. Compared to an earlier study (Hugerat,

2016) which assessed the extent of student

satisfaction and enjoyment while carrying out

scientific tasks, our study found that children not only

feel satisfaction with the DBL lessons but were in a

state of elation towards DBL activities. Moreover, the

materials and resources used in class also made them

feel joy. Forth, in the social emotion theme, the

feelings of joy were highlighted. Children tend to feel

joy to work with friends, as was expected based on

earlier research (Carroll et al., 2010; Giannakos et al.,

555

5555555555

Mickey Bambi Minnie/Thumper

EmpathizeDefineIdeatePrototypeTestPresent

Figure 4: Emotion values from 4 participants.

The Role of Children’s Emotions during Design-based Learning Activity

203

2014). The supportiveness from their facilitator is

another source of joy feelings, in line with (Hugerat,

2016).

4.2.3 Effect of Emotion on DBL

Our findings from the interview regarding how

emotions influence their attitude or behaviors in DBL

are synthesized into two major aspects: First, Mickey

and Minnie state that joy facilitates their learning

outcomes during the heads-in sessions, while it has no

effect on their hands-on sessions. Second, Bambi,

Thumper and Simba state that pride and elation have

a positive influence on their DBL activities. Similarly

an earlier study (Giannakos and Jaccheri, 2013) found

that enjoyment has no effect on students’ intention to

participate in similar activities in the future.

5 DISCUSSION

Emotion plays a vital role in DBL activities, acting as

a reciprocal linkage between antecedents (the

affective elements in DBL) and effects (the effect of

emotion on DBL). Five DBL components and seven

emotions are highlighted in this study.

The findings reported are only tentative, since this

has been but a small-scale study and we experienced

some serious methodological challenges in assessing

children’s emotions during DBL. First, data collected

may suffer from a social desirability bias, where

children tend to only report positive emotions in order

to appear more appealing to researchers (Hall et al.,

2016). Second, it has not been possible to track

emotions throughout the DBL activity using a self-

reporting instrument as this would have interrupted

the flow of their learning experience to some extent.

This study has derived some useful insights,

which will guide our future research on measuring

children’s emotions during DBL activity: Firstly,

negative emotions need to be fully embedded into the

emotion measurement instrument in order to detect

the full range of emotions. Secondly, to ensure the

credibility and reliability of emotion data, future

study designs should aim to ensure that children do

not share their emotion responses with each other

during the data collection process. Furthermore, due

to the subjectivity of asking the subjects about their

opinion on their own emotions, future studies could

triangulate subjective report data with facial

expression analysis and observation during the entire

DBL activity. Lastly, a pre-and-post test of children’s

emotional states is necessary, since except for

academic emotions, emotions originating from

extraneous activities and factors outside of school

may also influence children’s learning performance.

6 CONCLUSIONS

This paper argues for the importance of considering

emotions in DBL. An exploratory case study where

children aged 12 to 13 engage in DBL in a classroom

was conducted where we assessed their emotions.

Our results show that from the children’s point of

view, positive emotions such as pride and elation

seem to have a positive effect on their engagement

during DBL, while joy seems to facilitate their

engagement just before coming up with a design idea.

Further research will replicate and extend these

results to a broader range of situations where

emotions could play a role in DBL (e.g., cases of

failure, negotiation, and conflict), and at the same

time especially pay attention to measuring children’s

emotion without interrupting the flow of DBL. In

addition, further research may also pay attention to

adding the emotional angle of learning to existing

computer supported DBL tools.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We would like to thank China Scholarship Council

for their support, and the teachers and students from

Heerbeeck College for participating in this study.

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