Robinson Crusoe as a Textboo
k
In Schools During the Dutch Colonial Period in West Java
Indra Sarathan
1
, Randy Ridwansyah
1
and Wildan Insan Fauzi
2
1
Faculty of Cultural Sciences, Universitas Padjadjaran, Jatinangor, Indonesia
2
Department of History Education, Faculty of Education Social Sciences, Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia
Keywords: Robinson Crusoe, Proto-Novel, Prose, Textbook, Collonialism, Education.
Abstract: The Life and Strange Surprizing Adventures of Robinson Crusoe of York Mariner by Daniel Defoe was first
published in England in 1719. It has been translated into over a hundred languages since its first publication,
including Sundanese language written in Javanese script. It was published as Carita Robinson Krusoe [sic!]
by the Dutch colonial government press in Batavia, Landsdrukkerij in 1879 and translated by Raden
Kartawinata. However, little attention is given to the fact that it was one of the first adaptations of European
novels during the Dutch colonial period in Indonesia. Furthermore, in West Java, the novel was distributed to
schools, which established by the Dutch, and used as a textbook in classrooms attended by indigenous
Indonesians. This condition was a result of the Dutch Etchical policy which was aimed at bringing progress
and prosperity to the native population. It was a contrast with the initial nature of colonialism brought by the
Dutch to the Indonesian archipelago, which was to obtain maximum possible benefits. Therefore, literary
research is required in order to understand better the contents of this work. This particular work can be further
analysed to understand better the motivations within the text, which are not free from the values and norms
of the spirit of the age.
1 INTRODUCTION
The Life and Strange Surprising Adventures of
Robinson Crusoe of York Mariner by British author
Daniel Defoe (1659—1661) was first published in
two volumes in 1719 and 1720 in England
(Proudfoot, 1997, p.45). It is generally considered to
be the first novel written in the English language.
Some even believed that the story was actually based
on real-life incidents since the first edition credited
the work's protagonist Robinson Crusoe as its author.
The story tells about a young Englishman who,
from a young age, wants to go away to sea to seek his
fortune, rather than living a comfortable life he has in
England. His intention, however, is not approved by
his parents because he is the only son left in the family
and they want him to pursue another career. Against
the wishes of his parents, Robinson Crusoe is
determined to sail the sea. While traveling by ship
from Brazil to Africa, he is caught up in a terrible
storm and finds himself a castaway on an uninhabited
island in the Caribbean. He spends 28 years of his life
on the island, living almost entirely on his own. The
novel is considered to be the source of influence of
many literary works of the 18th century and the 19th
century in Europe. It has been translated into over a
hundred languages since its first publication,
including Sundanese language.
According to Moriyama (2005), in his published
dissertation Semangat Baru: Kolonialisme, Budaya
Cetak, dan Kesusastraan Sunda Abad Ke-19:
“Senarai Buku-Buku Cetak Berbahasa Sunda
Sebelum 1908” (2005, p.277), it was not until 1879,
Robinson Crusoe was translated to Sundanese
language in Cacarakan script. The translation entitled
Carita Robinson Krusoe [sic!] was published by a
Dutch publisher, Landsdrukkerij, and translated by
Raden Kartawinata (1846-1906). The known copies
of the manuscript are now available in the National
Library of Australia (NLA) and in the Library of the
University of Leiden.
In Indonesia, the work is considered as a
threshold that marks the modernization of traditional
literature. In addition, Carita Robinson Krusoe
(henceforth CRK) is one of the few literary work
adaptations that paved the way for the emergence of
print culture in Indonesia. At that time, the printing
house was exclusively an instrument of the Dutch
586
Sarathan, I., Ridwansyah, R. and Fauzi, W.
Robinson Crusoe as a Textbook - In Schools During the Dutch Colonial Period in West Java.
DOI: 10.5220/0007171405860591
In Proceedings of the Tenth Conference on Applied Linguistics and the Second English Language Teaching and Technology Conference in collaboration with the First International Conference
on Language, Literature, Culture, and Education (CONAPLIN and ICOLLITE 2017) - Literacy, Culture, and Technology in Language Pedagogy and Use, pages 586-591
ISBN: 978-989-758-332-2
Copyright © 2018 by SCITEPRESS – Science and Technology Publications, Lda. All rights reserved

colonial government and thus any publication had to
serve the government's interests.
CRK was first translated into Sundanese in
Cacarakan script by Raden Kartawinata in 1879.
However, it is unknown whether Kartawinata
translated his adaptation from the Dutch version of
the novel by Gerrard Keller, as written in the title
page of CRK, or from the Malay version entitled
Hikayat Robinson Crusoe by Adolf von De Wall,
which was published four years before CRK. An in-
depth philological research is required to trace back
the history of each publication. But, when a literary
work is translated into another language, it inevitably
undergoes not only a grammatical and semantic
transformation, but also an ideological one.
Therefore, this paper aims to identify the
modifications made by Kartawinata in adapting the
story of Robinson Cruose to conform to the
acceptable values in Sundanese culture and, at the
same time, suit the Dutch colonial government’s
ideological and political agendas.
Since a manuscript such as CRK has not been
distinctively categorized, it was not easy to obtain
information regarding the manuscript from the
National Library of Indonesia (PNRI). On one hand,
manuscripts such as CRK are still often excluded
because they are written in traditional languages and
thus not considered as part of Indonesian modern
literature. On the other hand, they are too "modern"
to be categorized as traditional manuscripts.
On the cover page of the manuscript, the title
Carita Robinson Krusoe is written in Cacarakan
script. The title page is written in Latin as Robinson
Crusoe, naar het Hollandsch van Gerard Keller door
Raden Karta Winata, translateur voor de Soendashe
taal, Batavia Landsdrukkerij, 1879. This information
was obtained from Tjarita Robinson Crusoe, disalin
tina basa Walanda ku Raden Kartawinata,
dipindahkeun ku R. Mohamad Saleh sareng R.A.
Machbub Danaatmadja, 1960. Tjarita Robinson
Crusoe (henceforth TRC) was published by the
initiative of R. Moehamad Saleh and R. A. Machbub
Danaatmadja in 1960 due to their concern regarding
the lack of good reading materials for Sundanese
people (Saleh and Danaatmadja, 1960, p.ii).
CRK was printed in Landsdrukkerij Weltevreden,
Batavia, while TRC was printed by the publisher Fa.
Dana Guru which is located at Jln. Penggangsaan
Barat no.12 Djakarta. There is, however, no reliable
information regarding the locations where both of the
manuscripts were first copied. But considering the
fact that in 1879 Raden Kartawinata had been
assuming his duty as a translator, it is possible that
CRK was reproduced in Garut before he became the
vice governor of Sumedang in 1883. CRK is
considered as a direct adaptation of the Dutch version
of Robinson Crusoe by Gelard Keller. As for TRC,
many believe that it was adapted from CRK.
Robinson Crusoe was published by the Dutch
Colonial Government to address the need of a
textbook for indigenous Indonesians who enrolled in
their schools. This condition was a result of the Dutch
Ethical policy, which was aimed at bringing progress
and prosperity to East Indies by establishing schools
and educating the native population. However, there
are possibly other considerations behind it.
In Indonesia, the novel has already received a lot
of critical attention, both in literary criticism and
postcolonial criticism, among which are: Robinson
Crusoe in Indonesia: traces the evolution of a sub-
genre of literature by Ian Proudfoot (1997),“Di
Ambang Gelombang Kedua: Terjemahan Cerita
Eropa” by Mikihiro Moriyama in the book Semangat
Baru: Kolonialisme, Budaya Cetak, dan
Kesusastraan Sunda Abad ke-19 (2005), and an essay
“Sastra Popular dan Subjektivitas Postkolonial:
Robinson Crusoe, Count de Monte Cristo, and
Sherlock Holmes di Indonesia Masa Kolonial” by
Doris Jedamski in
Clearing a Space (2008).
By the late of 19th century, the convention of
traditional writing was being replaced by the new
method of writing brought by the adaptations of
European literary works made possible by the
printing press. Thus, the structure of traditional
writing was challenged by a new style of writing
(prose), which eventually evolved into a new genre
(the novel) and in turn would shape Indonesian
literate culture.
2 THE NARROWING MEANING
OF LITERATURE AND EARLY
ART PRINT IN INDONESIA
The definition of “literature” is often limited to
merely fictional work. Scholars have argued over
what makes a piece of writing "literature". First, in a
literary text, events, experiences, and feelings are
written down in poetry, prose, or drama. Second, a
literary text is generally characterized by a feature
known as fictionality (
Van Luxemburg, Bal, and
Westseijn
, 1989, p.21), which is a narrative mode that
enables readers to immerse in a story.
The emphasis on the understanding of
literature as purely “fictional” has shaped how the
majority of Indonesian readers understand literature
or sastra. The definition of sastra, which is originated
Robinson Crusoe as a Textbook - In Schools During the Dutch Colonial Period in West Java
587

from Sanskrit, is any writing of good quality. It is
very different with fiksi (fiction) as 1) fiksi (the novel,
short story); 2) not based on real life; imaginary;
purely fictional (Tim Penyusun Kamus, 2008, p.466).
In fact, sastra, in the old sense of the word, include
various types of writing. All forms of science were
written in sastra, for example: Shilpa-sastra (the
science of sculpture), Vaastu-sastra (the science of
architecture), Artha-sastra (economic science), Niti-
sastra (political science) In this sense, sastra is a
writing that explain all ideas. The meaning of sastra,
therefore, is more than fiction.
Thus, the definition of literature understood by the
majority of Indonesians today is far from its original
definition in Sanskrit. Moreover, literature as a
subject is not adequately taught in schools. This
situation is possibly resulted from the arrival of
printed books in the 19th century in Indonesia.
It is necessary to discuss the emergence of the new
convention of writing/printing in Indonesia since it is
not only considered as a technological progress, but
also a cultural milestone, which transformed the way
writings had been produced and distributed in the
Archipelago centuries before the arrival of the
printing press.
The invention of the printing press by Johann
Gutenberg (1400-1468) in Germany not only
transformed Europe, but also the rest of the world,
including Indonesia. The Gutenberg Bible was the
first major book printed using the printing press in
1456. In 1500, around 250 printing houses were
established in many places in Europe and it is
estimated to print approximately 27.000 titles
(Kasijanto, 2008, p.291).
During the first quarter of the 17th century,
printing machines were shipped by the Dutch to
Indonesia. The first printing machines were shipped
in 1624 by the missionaries of the Church of the
Protestant Reformers of the Netherlands. The
machines used to print brochures, almanacs, books,
and other printed materials that support the activities
of the missionaries in the Archipelago (Kasijanto,
2008, p.291). There were at least three types of
printing businesses in the Netherlands East Indies
during early development: religious publisher, private
publisher, and the third publisher of the city under the
institution (state) later called the government
publisher.
The printing machines paved the way for the
emergence of printing houses and publishing
companies in the Archipelago. Johan Nieuhof who
have lived in Batavia between the year 1667-1670,
had the chance to see the first printing product called
tytboek (1659)—a sort of daily almanac derived from
the word tijd (time) and boek (book). In the mid-17th
century, publishing companies managed by either
individuals or the church emerge in Batavia
(Kasijanto, 2008, p.292). Around 1659-1695 at least
there were six printing houses in Batavia (according
to the research of F. Valentijn, quoted by Kimman
(1981) in Kasijanto (2008, p.292). They were a group
of ‘city-printers’ or stadsdrukker which is considered
to be independent from VOC's interests.
The presence of the printing of this town is quite
interesting. In the midst of the monopolistic power of
the VOC, it gave the opportunity to the printing
business outside its control. This is possibly because
a printing business at that time was still considered to
have a small economic value. Printing was considered
no more than a technical activity and not viewed as
one of the elements that could bring about cultural
change (Kasijanto, 2008, p.292).
3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
ON CHANGES IN WRITING
SYSTEM
In 1870s in West Java, there was an increase in the
publication of stories translated to Sundanese by the
Dutch government publisher, Landsdrukkerij. One of
the prominent figures involved in this endeavour was
Raden Kartawinata (1846-1906). He learned Dutch in
Garut directly from K. F. Holle, who was a good
friend of his father, Raden Moehamad Moesa
(Moriyama, 2005, pp.242-243). It is estimated that he
translated no less than 20 books (Moriyama, 2005,
p.265).
Kartawinata was appointed by the government as
a Sundanese assistant translator in February 1874
before designated government's official translator.
The Dutch government in Batavia considered
Kartawinata a reliable translator. In addition to
working as a translator, he was sworn into office as
vice governor of Sumedang in 1883 and assumed a
position as Zelfstandig Patih of Sukabumi (1892-
1904). He passed away in 1906. Kartawinata's works
in the field of translation had been widely recognized
and he was considered as one of the prominent
indigenous scholars.
Kartawinata's greater achievement is his
adaptation of Willem Yabrandtsz Bontekoe's journal,
a famous book about the adventure of Captain
Bontekoe and his ship during his voyage from Hoorn
the East Indies between 1618 and 1625. It was first
published in the 17th century and popular among
students in the Netherlands. Similar to the Dutch
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Conference in collaboration with the First International Conference on Language, Literature, Culture, and Education
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version, the Sundanese language version the story of
Captain Bontekoe is also morally charged
(Moriyama, 2005, pp.246-247). K. F. Holle was
behind the publication of his student's work. He was
hoping that European fictional works would portray a
positive image about Europeans among the
indigenous people.
The theme of faith and religious belief in Carita
Kapten Bontekoe fascinated native readers and it can
also be found in CRK. For example, when Crusoe is
faced with disaster, then only God (“Allah”, “Gusti
Allah”, “Allah nu Kawasa”) who determines the fate
of men. Europeans wanted to emphasize to native
readers that they also believe in God, and the message
is repeated in the book, as follow:
Ari Robinson mimitina tjitjing didjero kamar
kapal bae, nyenangkeun maneh keukeudeungan,
sabab anjeuna mah manehna meunang luwang
hanteu risieun tjara barang mimiti, rasana
mokaha bae, tapi barang ngadenge sora matros2
tjareurik bari ngadowa, pokna: “Allah tulung!
Allah tulung! Kapal botjor! Botjor!” (Saleh and
Danaatmadja, 1960, p.6).
Robinson was alone in his vessel's room,
enjoying himself while he could because now he
was not as busy as he had been. Nothing was
unusual until he heard the sailors crying and
praying: "God help us! The ship is leaking! The
ship is going to sink!"
The translation of “God” as ‘Allah’ instead of
‘Lord’ at the end of the 19th century the evangelists
are involved in these polemics, which ended with the
conclusion that the word ‘Tuhan’ is used to avoid
Islamic connotation. Kartawinata translated ‘God’
into ‘Allah’ so that the readers would understand the
message in that story (Moriyama, 2005, p.266). In
addition to faith in God, the story of Bontekoe also
promotes the supremacy of Western civilization
(Moriyama, 2005, p.248). It was also found that the
people in the archipelago were portrayed as
cannibals, barbarous, and wild.
According to Moriyama (2005), it shows the
Western view of a local inhabitant who is considered
uncivilized. Moriyama futher explained that
Kartawinata's works, such as Cariyos Tuwan Capitan
Marion and Carita Kapitan Bonteku, share a colonial
ideology. Unlike Robinson Crusoe, they highlight a
huge gap between Europeans and the local inhabitants
(Moriyama, 2005, p.p.248). In CRK, however, the
relationship between Crusoe and Jumaah (Friday) is
the closest thing to a "contact" that a European man
and an indigenous inhabitant can have, which is an
ambivalent one. The ideology of Dutch colonial is
based on the idea that the colonial subject should be
welcomed to a certain degree, but the impression of
discrimination should be avoided as not to create
antipathy among the colonized against the colonizing
(Moriyama, 2005, p.248).
Postcolonial approach is required in analyzing the
phenomenon. Postcolonial study analyzes how
literature reveals the “traces” of colonialism in the
confrontation of “races, nations, and cultures” that
occur within the scope of the “unequal power
relations” as the impact of European colonization
over the third world nations (Budiman, 2008).
Postcolonial literary studies attempt to analyze
and criticize the way authors on both sides of the
colonial dividing line, reproduce, challenge, or
remove textual colonialism in their works. Based on
the description above, from postcolonial point of of
view, CRK is considered as a text that dominantly
displays Western hegemony.
Not only detailed description of Western thoughts
and customs that makes Kartawinata's adaptation
look modern, it also contains sketch illustrations
accompanying the texts, which were fascinating to
the eyes of indigenous readers at that time. The
illustrations acted as visual stimuli as they read the
story. It was a new reading experience for them, a new
way of perceiveing the world (Moriyama, 2005,
p.252). Kartawinata's adaptation introduced
alternative sentence structure and grammar that later
would assimilate.
Kartawinata seemed to be aware of the difference
between kalimah and dangding, but the style of prose
is tailored to the aesthetic considerations of traditional
writing convention (Moriyama, 2005, p.255). At that
time, the art of speech or reading aloud was
customary. Lenggang Kantjana was an indigenous
who first stated that reading can be practiced
individually and in solitary. Carita or stories are best
read in solitary. Reading a book is an individual
activity performed in silence while lying down or
sitting in a rocking chair, like the Europeans
(Moriyama, 2005, p.255).
Europeans believed that, all other humans outside
Europe are uncivilized and, therefore, need to be
civilized. This can be traced in CRK in the following
excerpts:
…kula aya dina pulo kosong euweuh sato
galak nu pingabinasakeun awak, coba lamun
kapalidkeun ka pasisir Afrika mah nu loba pisan
sato galak jeung jelema leuweung, sakumaha
pitiwaseunana! (Kartawinata, 1879, p.63).
...I am on an inhabited island where no wild
animals can attack me. If I had drifted to the coast
Robinson Crusoe as a Textbook - In Schools During the Dutch Colonial Period in West Java
589

of Africa, I would have died devoured by wild
animals or by savage people.
In the mind of Europeans, Africa is the land of
death inhabited by jelema leuweung (savage people).
Robinson is grateful that he is not stranded on an
African coast.
Poe harita jeput nepi ka sore kula beak nya
nalangsa, tina kula teu boga pisan papakean, teu
boga pakarang keur bekel hirup. Rasa kula
dikepung ku baya maot, teu meunang henteu kudu
maot harita, tina sabab langlayeuseun atawa
dihakan sato galak atawa dipaehan ku jelema
leuweung. (Kartawinata, 1879, p.67).
I was suffered the entire day, and I did not
have any clothes to wear, nor weapons to defend
myself. I was besieged by death on all sides, it was
certain that I should have been dead, got lost or
devoured by wild animals or killed by savage
people.
Then, every European who came to any region
outside of Europe would always be suspicious. Even
before departing from their homeland, they would
imagine the danger. In addition, Friday (Jumaah) is a
character portrayed as ‘savage’ that, from the
perspective of a European, is described as follow:
Rasa Robinson eta jelema rupana jeung
dedegna tegep kacida, beungeutna segut sarta
cangker, tapi jauh pisan kana matak sieun. Ari
umurna pangira Robinson dua puluh lima taun
atawa dua puluh genep taun. (Kartawinata, 1879,
p.181).
He appeared like a man. He seemed strong in
physical appearance and stature, but did not cause
Robinson to fear him. Robinson estimates his age
is twenty five or twenty six years old.
Even in the other part of this story, Friday—who
had become friends and had much help Robinson
faced obstacles—still deems it not human.
Eta meureun kamanah ku sadayana sakumaha
bungahna Robinson, reh boga batur jelema
leuweung nu sakitu bodona ayeuna geus mimiti
rek iang-iang cara jelema. Malah Robinson ge
ayeuna geus henteu pati hayang balik ka enggon
jelema. (Kartawinata, 1879, p.190).
It might be quite understandable to all that
Robinson was pleased to see his friend, an
uncivilized, simple-minded savage, was now
beginning to act like human.
Racism has given rise to the justification of
colonialism because native non-human beings 'mimiti
rek iang-iang cara jelema' before meeting European
standards of which is religion:
…Ku Robinson tuluy dipapatahan agama
Kristen, sarta sejen-sejen elmu nu jero-jero ku
Robinson diragragkeun kabeh ka Jumaah, kitu
deui dicaritaan kaayaan nagara Robinson jeung
carita-caritaanana, Jumaah semu suka ati pisan
ngadengekeun papatah jeung carita-carita
juraganana. (Kartawinata, 1879, p.203).
…Robinson continued teaching him about
Christianity and other knowledges, about life in
the country where he came from. Friday seemed
to take great pleasure in listening to his master's
stories.
In addition to the narrative is subtle racism which
sets the Europeans remain as superior of the
indigenous peoples and should be civilised, there are
also narratives about religiosity and faith of the
Europeans—who represented by the character of
Robinson—were captured in large quantities in this
story:
Geus kitu pitulung Allah nu Kawasa eta kapal
kandas, jadi meh geus luput tina bahaya maot
kalebuh… (Kartawinata, 1879, p.10).
By the help of God almighty, the ship ran
ashore, escaped from danger of the sea, saved
from death by drowning….
…Robinson nahankeun maneh bae,
diingetkeun manehna wajib sukur ku pitulungna
Gusti nu sipat rahman, rehna dihirupkeun keneh,
sabab salawasna hirup mah ulah putus
pangharepan. Kitu deui tandana sukur
kupitulung Allah kudu tawekal sarta ihtiar.
(Kartawinata, 1879, p.36).
...Robinson refrain, reminded that he is
obliged to gratitude for the help of the Lord who
is rahman, that is still alive, because during the
life do not give up hope. Patience and trust in God
is a sign of gratitude to God for his guidance.
The concept of God is often presented with
diction: "Allah", "Gusti Allah", "Allah nu Kawasa",
"Gusti nu sipat rahman", "nu Kawasa", "Allah nu
Wisesa". The effect it has on the reader is to think that
the God often uttered by Robinson-as well as other
characters in the story-is the same God as the Muslim-
majority reader. In Islamic terminology God is Allah.
Also, with the title Gusti nu rahman 'God of rahman'
and Allah nu wisesa 'Almighty God' affirms that the
God worshiped Robinson is also the same God
CONAPLIN and ICOLLITE 2017 - Tenth Conference on Applied Linguistics and the Second English Language Teaching and Technology
Conference in collaboration with the First International Conference on Language, Literature, Culture, and Education
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worshiped by the majority of Muslims. This is very
important to be adjusted because not the greatest
resistance to the Dutch colonial government came
from the Islamic side. Thus, Robinson-who
represents the image of the Europeans-is imitated as
faithful as the one who stands firm on the teachings
of religion:
…rek nangtung henteu kaduga sapoe jeput
kula euweuh deui gawe kajaba: “Ya Gusti, mugi
sing welas ka kuring! Allah mugi kuring
dihampura.” (Kartawinata, 1879, p.86).
…I was even unable stand up and there was
nothing I could do except for praying, "May God's
love be with me! Oh God please forgive me!”
In certain parts, identity of Robinson was to be
affirmed, that he is not a muslim.
…manehna datang ka teu bisa sasarean
gandeng ku guntur sarta angin, tuluy bae
manehna maca kitab Injil.... (Kartawinata,
1879:p.156).
...he could not fall asleep fuss by the thunder
and the wind, kept read the Gospels...
…ku Robinson dihatean bae pokna: “Allah nu
mayungan urang…” (Kartawinata, 1879:p.246).
...Robinson reassured him by saying: “God
protects us…
Therefore, the impact of understanding that gave
birth to mutual understanding, even though different
religions but has levels of faith are the same height,
equally wise, and equally pious. Although there is a
possibility that it is just the impact from the point of
view of the translator—in this case Kartawinata the
son of Muhamad Musa—who was a muslim.
4 CONCLUSIONS
It can be concluded that Robinson is described as a
man of strong faith, religious, high moral, and wise
are arranged in such a way that the story is not denied
readers the school children in his day—that the
majority of muslims—with a fixed place the
individual European higher (superior) of the
indigenous population that need to civilized as the
recognition of who should be lordship.
Kartawinata passed away in 1906. It was not
Kartawinata who firstly introduced Cerita Robinson
Crusoe (1879). In 1875-four years earlier-had been
published a similar story entitled Hikajat Robinson
Crusoe by Adolf van De Wall which is a translation
of the German version of the Robinson Crusoe
adaptation of Joachim Heinrich Campe from the
original story The life and strange suprising
adventures of Robinson Crusoe in 1719. It should be
traced back that the German version of the novel is a
composite of Heinrich Campe from the original
Robinson Crusoe story which is more concerned with
moral and didactic elements associated with the
educational revolution in Europe. It is also possible
that the Dutch version of Robinson Crusoe by Gerald
Keller that leads into the second story of Robinson
Cruose in Indonesia: the work of van De Wall and
works Kartawinata. Robinson Crusoe gave birth to a
new literary genre in Indonesia. Manuscripts such as
CRK is a proto-novel, the forerunner of modern
literature in present-day Indonesia.
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Jedamski, D., 2008. Sastra Popular dan Subjektivitas
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dan Sherlock Holmes di Indonesia Masa Kolonial.
Clearing a Space. Jakarta, Obor – KITLV.
Kartawinata, 1879. Carita Robinson Krusoe, Batavia,
Landrukkerij.
Kasijanto, 2008. Media dan Monopoli Dagang Percetakan
dan Penerbitan pada Masa VOC. Jurnal Wacana UI.
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Moriyama, M., 2005. Semangat Baru: Kolonialisme,
Budaya Cetak, dan Kesusastraan Sunda Abad ke-19,
KPG. Jakarta.
Proudfoot, I., 1997. Robinson Crusoe in Indonesia. The
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