USING ALTERNATE REALITY GAMES TO SUPPORT THE

TEACHING OF MODERN FOREIGN LANGUAGES

Thomas M. Connolly

School of Computing, University of Paisley, High St, Paisley, Scotland

Keywords: ARGs, motivation, collaboration, social networking, modern foreign languages.

Abstract: It is recognised that games play an important role in child development. Nowadays with children growing

up in a highly technologically-rich society, many of these games are computer/console based. These types

of games, which we will refer to generically as computer games in this paper, have been of interest to

researchers from many different perspectives, some positive (for example, motivation, engagement,

learning, skills development) and some negative (for example, violence, aggression, gender stereotyping).

One particular type of game that has not been explored in detail for teaching and learning is the Alternate

Reality Game (ARG), a form of interactive narrative, often involving multiple media and game elements, to

tell a story that may be affected by participants’ ideas or actions. In this paper we discuss the use of an ARG

to help support the teaching and learning of modern foreign languages by European secondary school

children (ages 11-18).

1 INTRODUCTION

According to figures obtained by one of the political

parties in the UK, only 48% of pupils in England

took a modern European language at GCSE level in

2007, down from 83% in 2000. It has been

recognized for some time that there has been a

decline in this area despite a number of initiatives to

reverse this trend. Among other proposals, the UK

government is now proposing to make languages

compulsory in primary schools.

This is an unfortunate situation that has

developed as modern foreign languages (MFLs) can

provide an enhanced learning experience. MFL

teaching promotes young people’s cultural

development by providing them with insights into

cultural differences and opportunities to relate these

to their own experience, and to consider different

cultural and linguistic traditions, attitudes and

behaviours. Effective teaching in MFLs can make a

significant contribution to young people’s ability to

value diversity and challenge racism by providing

opportunities for them to (QCA, 2007):

• discover that many different languages are

spoken throughout the world, and that many

languages are spoken in a number of different

countries and by people from different ethnic

backgrounds;

• recognise that understanding another language

promotes a deeper appreciation of speakers of

that language and of their culture;

• learn that the ability to communicate with

speakers of other languages can nurture mutual

respect, tolerance and understanding;

• appreciate that speakers of different languages

may have beliefs, attitudes, behaviours and

experiences that are of equal worth;

• communicate in the target language, in pairs and

groups, with their teacher and with native

speakers, and thereby learn the importance of

listening carefully to others and of conveying a

clear message;

• appreciate the effort required by speakers to

communicate successfully in a language that is

not their first language.

As noted by Crookall (2007), language teachers

make great use of simulation/gaming methodologies

and there are many supporting textbooks and

research papers that present various forms of role-

play, games, simulations, and other exercises. (eg.

Gaudart, 1999; Garcia-Carbonell, Rising, Montero,

& Watts, 2001; Halleck, 2007). While many of the

428

M. Connolly T. (2008).

USING ALTERNATE REALITY GAMES TO SUPPORT THE TEACHING OF MODERN FOREIGN LANGUAGES.

In Proceedings of the Fourth International Conference on Web Information Systems and Technologies, pages 428-434

DOI: 10.5220/0001530604280434

 SciTePress

simulations/games used are non-computer based,

during recent years the computer game has become

an important development in popular culture. During

the same period there has been an appreciation that

computer games can play a significant role in

education. There is no doubt that computer games

are extremely engaging and incorporate features that

have an extremely compelling, even addictive

quality. It is these highly engaging features of

computer games that have attracted the interests of

educationalists.

In this paper, we explore a particular genre of

game called the Alternate Reality Game (ARG),

which is a form of interactive narrative, often

involving multiple media and game elements, to tell

a story that may be influenced by participants’ ideas

or actions. We are investigating the use of ARGs to

help support the learning of modern foreign

languages by European secondary school children

(ages 11-18). In the next section we examine the

literature on games and motivation, games-based

learning and ARGs, and some of links between

games and theories of learning and instruction. In

Section 3, we outline the work we are carrying out to

use ARGs for teaching purposes and the challenges

this will entail.

2 PREVIOUS RESEARCH

2.1 Computer Games and Motivation

Dempsey et al. (1996, page 2) cited in Mitchell and

Savill-Smith (2004) define a game as “…a set of

activities involving one or more players. It has

goals, constraints, payoffs and consequences. A

game is rule-guided and artificial in some respects.

Finally, a game involves some aspect of competition,

even if that competition is with oneself.” Caillois

(1961) defines a game as an activity that is voluntary

and enjoyable, separate from the real world,

uncertain, unproductive (in that the activity does not

produce any goods of external value), and governed

by rules. Prensky (2001) defines the key

characteristics of games as: rules, goals and

objectives, outcomes and feedback, conflict (and/or

competition, challenge, opposition), interaction, and

representation of story.

To understand why computers games are so

engaging we need to understand the reasons why

people play them. In recent years research on

motivation has made progress in trying to explain

why people behave in the ways that they do.

Motivation theorists since Maslow (1970) have

explained behaviours in terms of human needs and

desires. In self-determination theory, Ryan and Deci

(2000) distinguish between different types of

motivation based on the various reasons or goals that

give rise to an action. The most basic distinction is

between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. Intrinsic

motivation refers to doing something because it is

inherently interesting or enjoyable while extrinsic

motivation refers to doing something because it

leads to a separable outcome (such as a verbal

reward like praise or a tangible reward like money).

Research on achievement motivation (Elliot,

1999) faces the challenge of explaining why

individuals take part in learning activities that are

difficult, not always interesting or enjoyable and

require a lot of effort and persistence to succeed.

Theories of achievement motivation have identified

a number of features leading to higher motivation

including mastery orientation, internal locus of

control, high self-efficacy, expectancy of success,

task value, self-regulation and autonomy. Many of

these features are related to intrinsic motivation.

Others have tried to provide a more detailed

account of important features in intrinsic motivation.

Malone and Lepper (1987) present a theoretical

framework of factors influencing intrinsic

motivation in the design of educational computer

games. They suggest that intrinsic motivation is

created by four individual factors: challenge,

fantasy, curiosity and control and three interpersonal

factors: cooperation, competition, and recognition.

Interestingly these factors also describe what makes

a good game, irrespective of its educational

qualities. While intrinsic motivation is highly

desirable, many of the activities in which learners

engage in is directly influenced by extrinsic rather

than intrinsic motivation (Csikszentmihalyi &

Nakamura, 1989). Unfortunately evidence suggests

that extrinsic motivators may lead to merely short-

range activity while actually reducing long-range

interest in a topic while with intrinsic motivators

learners tend to persist longer, work harder, actively

apply strategies and retain key information more

consistently (Guthrie et al., 1996). Thus, extrinsic

motivators must be supported by intrinsic

motivators, otherwise the result is likely to be a

reduction in the very behaviour we want to promote.

One of the most serious problems that research has

pointed out during the past two decades is that

extrinsic motivation when used alone is likely to

have precisely the opposite impact that we want it to

have on learner achievement (Lepper & Hodell,

1989).

Computer games induce emotional reactions

within players that encourage them to continue

involvement with the game. These reactions include

satisfaction, desire, anger, absorption, interest,

excitement, enjoyment, pride in achievement, and

USING ALTERNATE REALITY GAMES TO SUPPORT THE TEACHING OF MODERN FOREIGN LANGUAGES

429

the (dis)approbation of peers and of others. It is in

provoking and harnessing some of these emotions

and their consequences that computer games might

benefit education. This is borne out by a study by

Ricci, Salas and Cannon-Bowers (1996), which

found that incorporating game features into

instruction increased motivation and consequently

produced greater attention and retention. An

empirical study by Chen, Shen, Ou and Liu (1998)

demonstrated the positive effects of computer games

on motivation and learning.

Research on achievement motivation has

identified many features that motivate students in

learning, but there is a more obvious characteristic

that appears to be important in engaging players of

computer games and that is fun and enjoyment.

Interestingly, there is surprisingly little research on

the motivating value of fun (Prensky, 2002). Perhaps

it is seen as self-evident that fun is intrinsically

motivating and that people will want to engage in

activities that they find pleasurable. The literature on

achievement motivation does not discuss fun as a

motive for learning. Prensky (2002) argues that there

is a strong resistance to considering that fun might

be one of the goals of learning. He contends that this

is largely for historical reasons: learning was

introduced via religious organisations and it was

thought that learning should be formal and serious.

While we might imagine that introducing the fun

factor of computer games into learning might be

highly attractive, some researchers believe that

learning should not be fun; for example, Stoll (1999,

p. 22) states “What seems like a game to someone

will feel like work to another. The intention should

be enlightenment, not entertainment. Learning isn’t

about acquiring information, maximising efficiency,

or enjoyment. Learning is about developing human

capacity. To turn learning into fun is to denigrate

the two most important things we can do as humans:

To teach. To learn.”. Certainly it may turn out that

entertainment and education are ultimately

incompatible. Okan (2003), for example, points out

that while computer games are highly motivating

they may be only motivating to play games and not

to learn.

There are also other issues that may prevent

computer games becoming a primary tool in

education. The most frequently cited concerns are

around the long term effects of violence on game

players, although there is no agreed consensus. For

example, Provenzo (1991) claims that computer

games: (a) can lead to violent, aggressive behaviour;

(b) employ destructive gender stereotyping; (c)

promote unhealthy ‘rugged individualist’ attitudes

and (d) stifle creative play. On the other hand,

catharsis theory states that games playing may be a

useful means of coping with, or releasing, pent-up

aggression (Emes, 1997). Other negative aspects of

gaming that researchers emphasize include gaming

addiction (Griffiths & Hunt, 1998); poor sleep

patterns (Higuchi et al., 2005); obesity (Vandewater,

Shim, & Caplovitz, 2004); the prevalence in

computer games of violent imagery (Smith, Lachlan,

& Tamborini, 2003); and problematic cultural

ideologies (Gottschalk, 1995).

2.2 Games-based Learning

Connolly and Stansfield (2007) define computer

games-based learning as “the use of a computer

games-based approach to deliver, support, and

enhance teaching, learning, assessment, and

evaluation”. This is a research area that may be

conceptualized as the intersection of learning theory,

computer games theory and design, user interfaces,

and subject matter expertise. In this

conceptualization, learning theory serves as the

foundation to ensure that technology does not

become the dominant factor.

Many games-based learning applications are PC-

based and typically involve the use of 2D or 3D

graphics. For example, Figure 1 shows a screenshot

from Virtual U (http://virtual-u.org) modelled after

the popular SimCity series, which aims to train

university administrators and graduate students to

deal with the growing complexities and challenges

of running a modern university. While Virtual U is a

simulation, it is grounded in authentic data from

1,200 universities and colleges in the United States

(Penrod & Perry, 2003). Figure 2 shows a screenshot

from America’s Army, which was released by the

US Army to aid recruitment. This game allows users

to learn about a range of key skills that include

teamwork, leadership and communication as they

navigate challenges to achieve goals.

Figure 1: Screenshot from Virtual U.

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Figure 2: Sample screenshot from America’s Army.

2.3 Alternate Reality Games

Alternate Reality Games (ARGs) or “immersive

gaming” is a blend of online narrative and puzzle

solving (similar to an online scavenger hunt). The

narrative is gradually revealed through a series of

media such as websites, instant messaging, text

messages, emails, wikis and blogs and, in some

cases, TV and newspaper adverts and telephone

calls.

Central to the development and running of an

ARG is the puppetmaster, who is simultaneously an

ally and adversary to the player base, creating

obstacles and providing resources for overcoming

them in the course of telling the game’s story.

One of the earliest ARGs was developed in 2001

to market the film A.I.: Artificial Intelligence and a

series of Microsoft computer games based on the

film. It was based on an elaborate murder mystery

played out across hundreds of websites, email

messages, faxes, fake ads, and voicemail messages.

At its height it involved over three million active

participants from all over the world; in essence, it

was a type of massively multiplayer online game

(MMOG). Due to the size of the assets involved in

the early stages of development, the game became

known as “The Beast”. Microsoft also used this type

of game to create significant market hype around the

launch of the Xbox game Halo 2. Called “I Love

Bees”, the game wove together an interactive

narrative set in 2004 and a War of the Worlds-style

radio drama set in the future, broken into 30-60

second segments and broadcast over telephones

worldwide.

Fundamental to the solving of the game is

collaboration – players must work together to solve

the puzzles and ultimately the game. In most games

the player controls an avatar to interact in a virtual

world. In contrast, one of the potential strengths of

ARGs is that the players play themselves. Thus,

instead of helping an avatar to ‘learn’ new skills and

gain experience, ARGs rely on the knowledge that a

player already possesses. One further technological

area that has been identified as having strong impact

on learning is the emergence of social networking.

Interestingly, not only are ARGs a form of computer

game they are also heavily built around social

networking.

2.4 Theories of Learning and

Instruction

Within the theories of learning and instruction we

can identify highly desirable qualities of Alternate

Reality Games that are worthy of further

investigation. Connolly et al. (2004) argue that such

games build on theories of:

• Constructivism, a philosophical,

epistemological, and pedagogical approach to

learning, where learning is viewed as an active

process in which learners construct new ideas or

concepts based upon their current/past

knowledge. The learner selects and transforms

information, constructs hypotheses, and makes

decisions, relying on a cognitive structure to do

so.

• Situated Learning, where learning is viewed as

a function of the activity, context and culture in

which it occurs (Lave, 1988).

• Cognitive Apprenticeship, an instructional

strategy that models the processes experts use to

handle complex tasks. The focus is on cognitive

and metacognitive skills, requiring the

externalization of processes that are usually

carried out internally. Observing the processes

by which an expert thinks and practices these

skills teach students to learn on their own

(Collins, Brown, & Newman, 1989).

• Problem-based Learning, an instructional

strategy for posing significant, contextualized,

real world situations, and providing resources,

guidance, and instruction to learners as they

develop content knowledge and problem-

solving skills (Mayo, Donnelly, Nash, &

Schwartz, 1993).

In addition to the cognitive dimension of knowledge

and skills and the emotional dimension of feelings

and motivation, there is also a growing recognition

that learning also encompasses the social dimension

of communication and cooperation – all three of

which are embedded in a societally situated context

USING ALTERNATE REALITY GAMES TO SUPPORT THE TEACHING OF MODERN FOREIGN LANGUAGES

431

(Illeris, 2002). Connolly and Stansfield (2007) also

suggest that computer games have a number of

social aspects that may lead to enhanced learning.

For example, in a community of practice learning

occurs through participation in the practices of the

community, as individuals develop ways of thinking

and reframe their identities and interests in relation

to the community (Lave & Wenger, 1991). More

specifically, Wenger (1998) identifies four aspects

of learning within the community of practice

framework: (a) learning as doing, or changes in how

we engage in social practices, (b) learning as

experience, or changes in how we make meaning of

our lives and our worlds, (c) learning as becoming,

or changes in our identities, and (d) learning as

belonging, or changes in our relationships to the

community and practices.

Learning communities, whether these are face-

to-face or online, are drawn together through the

principles of ‘commonality’ and ‘interdependence’.

Commonality involves a process of working

together in common areas and interests and, in the

process, forming a bond or identity with one another

and with the group as a whole. Interdependence

implies depending on one another in a positive way

for information, knowledge organisation, and shared

problem solving. A desirable feature of online

learning communities is that there exists varying

demands and expertise at different levels of

competency where participants can scaffold one

another through the sharing of information and

abilities. Strong community is important as it has

been shown to lead to deep learning (Chapman,

Ramondt, & Smiley, 2005). Two important activities

in communities are communication and

collaboration, which provide opportunities for

reflection and articulation.

McGonigal (in print) argues that the gameplay

within I Love Bees develops “collective

intelligence” through three stages: a) collective

cognition, b) cooperation, and c) coordination. She

believes these distinct stages of collaboration occur

through three aspects of game design, namely: a)

massively distributed content, b) meaningful

ambiguity, and c) real-time responsiveness, and

“that these elements form a reproducible set of core

design requirements that may be used to inspire

future learning systems that support and ultimately

bring to a satisfying conclusion a firsthand

engagement with collective intelligence”.

3 USING ARGS TO TEACH

MODERN FOREIGN

LANGUAGES

While Alternate Reality Games have been used

primarily as a marketing tool, such games exhibit

qualities that may make them extremely useful

within teaching and learning. Our aim is to

investigate the use of ARGs to support the teaching

and learning of modern foreign languages within

secondary education across several European

countries. The plan is to develop an appropriate

ARG that will allow groups of pupils across Europe

to work collaboratively to solve the game. The game

will be such that the pupils have to communicate in

the language they are learning to solve the puzzles.

Like other ARGs, not all of the game will be

scripted prior to commencement of the game and the

teachers, as puppetmasters, will be able to

dynamically intervene to scaffold and further

challenge the pupils. We currently envisage using a

number of multimedia mechanisms including

websites, instant messaging, text messages, emails,

wikis and blogs.

There are a number of design challenges that we

will face in this project, such as:

• How to design an integrated set of multi-lingual,

multi-media problems that require collective

effort to solve.

• How to create an interface to communicate

individual, differentiated roles within the

collaborative structure.

• How to design for collective intelligence, rather

than “hive mind” or “mob effect”.

• How to produce a replicable solution that can be

used by modern foreign language teachers

across Europe.

• How to ensure the system is “secure” so that

only authorised users can access the system

(critical for many European countries where

children are involved).

• How to evaluate the usefulness of ARGs for

learning a modern foreign language.

The last challenge listed is very important to the

project to demonstrate the effectiveness (or

otherwise) of this approach. However, there has

been a dearth of empirical studies analyzing the

usage of games-based learning and general models

of evaluation are currently lacking (Connolly,

Stansfield, & Hainey, 2007) and this will have to be

addressed early on in the project.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This work is supported by the EU Comenius

Programme under project contract 133909-2007-

UK-COMENIUS-CMP.

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