UNCONSCIOUS EMOTIONAL INFORMATION PROCESSING:
THEORETICAL CONSEQUENCES AND PRACTICAL
APPLICATIONS
Maurits van den Noort, Kenneth Hugdahl
Department of Biological and Medical Psychology, University of Bergen, Jonas Lies vei 91, N-5009 Bergen, Norway
Peggy Bosch
Department of Psychiatry and Clinical Medicine, University of Bergen, Sandviksleitet 1, N-5035 Bergen, Norway
Keywords: Consciousness, Quantum Physics, Unconscious Information Processing, Emotions, Consumer Behavior.
Abstract: The nature of unconscious human emotional information processing remains a great mystery. On the one
hand, classical models view human conscious emotional information processing as computation among the
brain’s neurons but fail to address its enigmatic features. On the other hand, quantum processes
(superposition of states, nonlocality, and entanglement) also remain mysterious, yet are being harnessed in
revolutionary information technologies like quantum computation, quantum cryptography, and quantum
teleportation. In this paper, a behavioral- and two neuroimaging studies will be discussed that suggest a
special role for unconscious emotional information processing in human interaction with other objects.
Since this is a new research field; we are only beginning to understand quantum information processing in
the human brain (Hameroff, 2006; Van den Noort and Bosch, 2006). This research is important since it
could have important theoretical consequences in the way we understand physics and information
processing in the brain. Moreover, it could lead to new information technologies and applications. For
instance, it might give new insights on human consumer behavior (Dijksterhuis, 2004; Dijksterhuis, Bos,
Nordgren, and Van Baaren, 2006a; 2006b), and lead to new commercial strategies for multinationals.
1 QUANTUM INFORMATION
THEORY
From the beginning of quantum mechanics, the
concept of measurement and the possible role of
consciousness in the solution to the measurement
problem have been important topics (e.g. Wigner,
1962). Despite of these unsolved issues (Penrose,
2005), quantum theory has further developed. At the
quantum level (e.g. atomic and subatomic scales),
the laws of physics differ strangely from our
everyday “classical” world (Van den Noort,
Hugdahl, and Bosch, 2005b).
Quantum theory describes the bizarre properties
of matter and energy at near-atomic scales. Quantum
particles (1) can interconnect nonlocally and
correlate instantaneously over distance (quantum
entanglement, long-range dipole correlations), (2)
can unify into single entities (quantum coherence,
condensation), and furthermore (3) can behave as
waves and exist in two or more states or locations
simultaneously (quantum superposition). When
superpositioned particles are measured or observed,
they immediately reduce to single, definite states or
locations, known as quantum state reduction or
“collapse of the wave function.” Superposition and
quantum state reduction are used in quantum
computers in which information (e.g. bits of 1 or 0)
may be temporarily represented as quantum
information (e.g. quantum bits, or qubits, of both 1
and 0), which reduces to classical information as
output (Hameroff, 2006; Woolf and Hameroff,
2001).
According to some scientists, all quantum
properties can be applied to the seemingly
inexplicable features of consciousness. First,
quantum coherence (e.g. Bose-Einstein
condensation) is a possible physical basis for
207
van den Noort M., Hugdahl K. and Bosch P. (2007).
UNCONSCIOUS EMOTIONAL INFORMATION PROCESSING: THEORETICAL CONSEQUENCES AND PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS.
In Proceedings of the Ninth International Conference on Enter prise Information Systems - HCI, pages 207-214
DOI: 10.5220/0002355602070214
Copyright
c
 SciTePress

‘binding’ or unity of consciousness (Marshall,
1989). Second, non-local entanglements (e.g.
‘Einstein-Podolsky-Rosen correlations’) serve as a
potential basis for associative memory and non-local
emotional interpersonal connection. Third, quantum
superposition of information provides a basis for
preconscious and subconscious processes, dreams
and altered states. Finally, the transition from
preconscious processes to consciousness involves
quantum state reduction/wave function collapse in
the brain (Penrose, 1994; Stapp, 1993).
In the Orchestrated Objective Reduction (Orch
OR) model, quantum computation occurs in
microtubules within the brain’s neurons.
Microtubules are polymers of the protein tubulin
which, in the Orch OR model, transiently exist in
quantum superposition of two or more
conformational states. Following periods of
preconscious quantum computation (e.g. on the
order of tens to hundreds of milliseconds) tubulin
superpositions reduce or ‘self-collapse’ at an
objective threshold due to a quantum gravity
mechanism proposed by Penrose (1994).
Microtubule-associated protein (MAP-2)
connections provide input during classical phases.
Each Orch OR quantum computation determines
classical output states of tubulin, which govern
neurophysiological events, such as initiating spikes
at the axon hillock, regulating synaptic strengths,
forming new MAP-2 attachment sites and gap-
junction connections, and establishing starting
conditions for the next conscious event (Hameroff,
1998; Hameroff and Penrose, 1996; Penrose and
Hameroff, 1995).
However, most cognitive- and neuroscientists are
skeptical and there is an interesting discussion going
on between physicists and cognitive neuroscientists
(Van den Noort and Bosch, 2006). How can
presumably delicate quantum states operate
macroscopically at warm brain temperatures
(Tegmark, 2000)? How could the human brain
process information in a non-linear way? This
appears to be in huge contrast to our experiences in
daily life, in which time is experienced as being
completely linear (Van den Noort et al., 2005b)!
In this paper, data of a behavioral study and two
neuroimaging studies on the processing of positive
and negative emotional pictures will be presented
that support the quantum information theory of
unconscious human emotional information
processing. Before discussing this more into detail,
we would like to briefly discuss some of the main
findings on human emotional information
processing.
2 HUMAN EMOTIONAL
INFORMATION PROCESSING
From cognitive neuroscience it is known that
emotional stimuli are first processed via an
automatically engaged neural mechanism, which
occurs outside conscious awareness. This
mechanism, which was proven in neuroimaging
studies, operates in conjunction with a slower and
more comprehensive process that allows a detailed
evaluation of the potentially harmful stimulus
(LeDoux, 1996). Event-related potential (ERP) data
revealed a double dissociation for the conscious
versus unconscious perception of negative stimuli.
In the unconscious condition, responses to the
perception of negative stimuli were enhanced
relative to neutral for the N2 “excitatory” component
(a negative potential at +/-200 milliseconds), which
is thought to represent orienting and automatic
aspects of information processing. By contrast,
conscious perception of negative stimuli was
associated with relatively enhanced responses for the
late P3 “inhibitory” component (a positive potential
at +/-300 milliseconds), implicated in the integration
of emotional processes (Liddell, Williams, Rathjen,
Shevrin, and Gordon, 2004). From recent functional
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) studies, it is
known that unconscious processing of fear may
occur via a direct rostral-ventral amygdala pathway;
whereas elaboration of consciously attended signals
of fear may rely on higher-order processing within a
dorsal cortico-amygdala pathway (e.g. Williams et
al., 2006).
Previous social cognition studies have shown
that a great deal of human emotional information
processing is rooted in unconscious processes
(Bargh, Chaiken, Raymond, and Hymes, 1996; Van
den Noort, 2003). During the last two decades,
several behavioral studies were conducted in this
field. These studies, for example, have shown that
humans pick up the emotional content of facial
expressions outside conscious awareness (e.g.
Murphy and Zajonc, 1993; Niedenthal, 1990). Other
studies have shown that humans evaluate objects (as
for example “good” or “bad”) at an unconscious
level (e.g. Bargh, Chaiken, Govender, and Pratto,
1992; Bargh et al., 1996; Chen and Bargh, 1999). As
a result, this has far reaching behavioral
consequences since our unconscious evaluation, for
instance, influences our consumer behavior (Van
den Noort, 2003).
There are two main theories on where emotional
information is processed in the brain (Hellige, 1993).
The right hemisphere theory (Borod, Kent, Koff,
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Martin, and Alpert, 1988) posits that the right
hemisphere is dominant over the left hemisphere for
all emotional information.
The valence theory, on the other hand, states that
hemispheric asymmetry for expression and
perception of emotions depends on emotional
valence; the right hemisphere is dominant for
negative emotional information and the left
hemisphere is dominant for positive emotional
information (Lee, Loring, Dahl, and Meador, 1993).
In our behavioral study, the focus will be on how
humans process positive and negative emotional
pictures. According to the right hemisphere theory
(Borod et al., 1988), all attitudes are processed better
and faster in the right hemisphere. This would result
in the hypothesis that all emotional pictures are
processed better and faster when they are presented
in the left visual field (and processed in the right
hemisphere). Whereas according to the valence
theory (Lee et al., 1993), the right hemisphere is
dominant for negative attitudes and the left
hemisphere is dominant for positive attitudes. In line
with the valence theory, the hypothesis would be
that the negative emotional pictures are processed
better and faster when they are presented in the left
visual field and the positive pictures are processed
better and faster when they are presented in the right
visual field. In addition, we are interested in the
question if the results are the same at different
presentation times (e.g. subliminal, supraliminal, and
completely conscious)?
2.1 Behavioral Study
2.1.1 Participants
Thirty-five students from the University of Bergen
(Norway) participated in this study following written
informed consent according to institutional
guidelines. There were 15 males and 20 females
with an average age of 23 years and they were all
native speakers of Norwegian. An honorarium was
given for participation.
2.1.2 Experimental Design
A 3 (Presentation time: 10ms, 120ms, 1000ms) x 3
(Visual field: left, right, center) x 2 (Valence:
positive vs. negative) x 2 (Response button:
positive-left/negative-right vs. positive-
right/negative-left), within subject design was used
(with the last factor as a between subjects factor).
2.1.3 Procedure
All participants were instructed to sit calmly behind
a computer screen. All participants were positioned
at a distance of 60 cm from the computer screen (see
Hellige and Yamauchi, 1999). A divided visual field
technique (Barton, Goodglass, and Shai, 1965;
Nicholls, Wood, and Hayes, 2001) was used and, as
a result, the pictures were presented in the right- and
left visual field and at the center of the screen. The
emotional pictures were presented at different
presentation times (10ms, 120ms, 1000ms). There
were sixty emotional pictures (30 positive and 30
negative). The pictures were taken from the
International Affective Picture System (Ito,
Cacioppo, and Lang, 1998) and from the internet.
There were no significant differences in size and
brightness between the 30 positive and 30 negative
pictures. The participants task was to evaluate the
pictures as positive or negative by pressing the
‘positive’ and the ‘negative’ button as soon as
possible and the location of the ‘positive’ and
‘negative’ button (left vs. right) was varied between
participants. Both the responses and the reaction
times were measured.
After the experiment, all participants were asked
if they knew the goal of the experiment after which
they received feedback about the experiment.
2.1.4 Results
A 3 (Presentation-time: 10ms, 120ms, 1000ms) x 3
(Visual field: left, right, center) x 2 (Valence:
positive vs. negative) x 2 (Response button:
positive-left/negative-right vs. positive-
right/negative-left), within subject multivariate
analysis of variance (MANOVA) was conducted
(with the last factor as a between subjects factor).
As can be seen in Table 1, at a presentation time
of 120ms, the negative emotional pictures were
processed significantly better and faster when they
were presented in the left visual field (p < .05) and
the positive pictures were processed significantly
better and faster when they were presented in the
right visual field (p < .05). At the conscious- and at
the subliminal level, the opposite pattern was found.
At these presentation times, evidence in favor of the
right hemisphere theory was found only for the
positive pictures. The positive pictures that were
presented in the left visual field were processed
significantly better and faster than when they were
presented in the right visual field.
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209

Table 1: Mean reaction time for the positive and negative
pictures; specified for visual field (left vs. right) and
presentation time (1000ms, 120ms, 10ms).
Duration Left Right
Positive 1000ms 614ad 686ae
Negative 1000ms 759ad 612ae
Positive 120ms 769bd 661ae
Negative 120ms 993bd 1040be
Positive 10ms 1154cd 1320ce
Negative 10ms 1374cd 1292ce
*Note: Means (across rows and colons) with different
subscripts are significantly different (p < .05).
2.1.5 Discussion
In the behavioral study, at a presentation time of
120ms, evidence in favor of the valence theory (Lee
et al., 1993) was found. The negative emotional
pictures were processed significantly better and
faster when they were presented in the left visual
field and the positive pictures were processed
significantly better and faster when they were
presented in the right visual field. At the conscious-
and at the subliminal level, evidence in favor of the
right hemisphere theory (Borod et al., 1988) was
found only for the positive pictures.
The conclusion can be drawn that unconscious
emotional information processing happens all the
time and could have direct behavioral consequences
(Van den Noort, 2003). Until now, these
unconscious processes remain a great mystery.
Although we are beginning to understand some of
the mechanisms behind unconscious emotional
information processing, a lot remains unanswered.
For example, do humans process emotional
information at the unconscious level in exactly the
same way as at the conscious level; and what are the
implications for human object (e.g. computers, other
humans etc.) interaction? Moreover, could
unconscious emotional information processing
perhaps be the missing link between quantum
information theory and conscious human emotional
information processing (Van den Noort et al.,
2005b)? In order to illustrate the way in which
humans process unconscious emotional stimuli in
the brain, two neuroimaging studies (Bierman and
Scholte, 2002; McCraty, Atkinson, and Bradley,
2004) will be discussed.
3 NEUROIMAGING STUDIES
3.1 ERP Study
3.1.1 Methodology
McCraty et al. (2004) conducted an ERP-study on
unconscious emotional information processing.
Twenty-six adult participants, 11 males, 15 females
participated in the study. Each participant was fitted
with an EEG electrode cap according to the
International 10-20 system. An additional electrode
for recording the electrooculogram (EOG) was
placed above the right eye to monitor eye blinks and
movement. Data editing was blind to stimulus
category (calm or emotional targets). Data
processing and statistical analysis used DADISP,
MATLAB and SPSS.
3.1.2 Results
Results for the group as a whole showed a
significant difference in ERPs in the prestimulus
period for future calm versus emotional pictures at
both FP1 (left frontopolar; t
sum
= -28.82, p < .05) and
FP2 (right frontopolar; t
sum
= -27.27, p < .05) EEG
sites. The ERPs for a future emotional stimulus were
more negative, with the point of maximum
negativity occurring slightly before that of the ERPs
for the future calm pictures. In addition, there was a
positive shift with a steep slope observed
approximately 4 seconds before the emotional
stimuli. In both locations, this positive shift in the
emotional trial ERP occurred approximately a
second before the shift occurred in the calm trial
ERPs. There was a significant t
sum
difference
between the prestimulus ERPs for calm versus
emotional trials at midline EEG site Pz (t
sum
= -
13.24, p < .05). Because of the significant findings at
FP1 and FP2, an additional RPA of the EOG
channel was conducted, which revealed that eye
movement artifacts did not contribute to this result
(McCraty et al., 2004; Van den Noort, Bosch, and
Hugdahl, 2005a).
3.2 fMRI Study
3.2.1 Methodology
Bierman and Scholte (2002) examined the neural
substrates of unconscious emotional information
processing with fMRI. In the experiment, a 1.5 Tesla
Siemens system was used. Ten participants (6 male,
4 female) entered the study. The task instruction was
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given outside of the scanner. First, an MPRAGE
high resolution scan that lasted for about 20 minutes
was made of every participant. Then, a position
localizer scan of about 2 minutes was conducted
after which the experimental task of about 13
minutes was presented. The participants were
instructed to relax while passively looking at the
pictures that were randomly presented by a computer
connected to a video projector onto a screen. The
participants were able to watch the screen by
looking at a mirror inside the scanner. They were
requested to try to forget any emotional material
right after exposure finished so that the next
presentation would be influenced as little as possible
by the previous one. The stimulus material consisted
of a picture pool of 36 emotional (18 erotic, 18
violent) and 48 neutral stimuli (e.g. Ito et al., 1998;
Laan, Everaerd, Bellen, and Hanewald, 1994). For
each stimulus presentation, the stimulus condition
was determined randomly with a priori chance of 2
neutral versus 1 emotional. Each stimulus sequence
started with the 4.2 second presentation of a fixation
point during which the anticipation was measured.
After the exposure of the stimulus picture, which
also lasted 4.2 seconds, there was a period of 8.4
seconds during which the participant was supposed
to recover from the stimulus presentation. Data were
analyzed using Brainvoyager. The main hypothesis
of the study was, whether non-linear differences in
BOLD signal could be found (Bierman and Scholte,
2002).
3.2.2 Results
The poststimulus results showed whole visual cortex
activation, which could be expected because visual
stimuli were used. Interestingly, all regions of
interest resulting from the contrast analysis, showed
a response for all stimuli (including the calm
pictures). An exception to this was the subcortical
region close to the amygdala. Only the emotional
pictures showed a response there. The fact that erotic
stimuli have impact on the BOLD signal from the
amygdala is in line with results from Everitt (1990),
who found dramatic change in sexual behavior after
lesion of the amygdala in rats. Moreover, the
amygdala plays an important role in most brain-
referenced theories of emotion (e.g. Cacioppo,
Gardner, and Berntson, 1999; Davidson, Scherer,
and Goldsmith, 2003; Gallagher and Chiba, 1996;
LeDoux, 1996; Zajonc, 1998).
The analysis of the prestimulus phase showed
larger anticipatory activation preceding emotional
stimuli compared to neutral stimuli in the right
amygdala and in the caudate nucleus. For the male
participants, as can be seen in Figure 1, this
appeared before the erotic stimuli while for the
female participants both erotic and violent stimuli
produced this prestimulus effect (Bierman and
Scholte, 2002; Van den Noort, 2003; 2004b).
Figure 1: Results from an fMRI experiment.
There is a significant difference in the prestimulus phase
between highly emotional (pink curve) and neutral stimuli
(blue curve) 4 seconds before stimulus presentation
(Bierman and Scholte, 2002).
4 DISCUSSION
In this paper, data of a behavioral study and two
neuroimaging studies on the processing of positive
and negative emotional pictures was presented that
support the quantum information theory of
unconscious human emotional information
processing. Evidence for unconscious non-linear
human information processing was found, however,
more research on this topic is needed; particularly on
the direct human computer emotional interaction
(Van den Noort, 2004c).
So far, we do know from studies with random
generators, for example, that non-linear information-
processing is possible up to longer time distances
(Van den Noort, 2004a). In these studies, evidence
for consciousness-related anomalies in random
physical systems was found (Radin and Nelson,
1987). Before, during, and after powerful engaging
events, the measurement system was affected. This
was, for instance, the case before, during, and after
the September 11 attacks. Significant trends in the
data were found that could normally not be expected
in the data produced by random generators. This
research field might have important future
applications. When it is combined with the existing
technology, it could lead to a better prediction of
coming major events like terrorist attacks and
earthquakes (Van den Noort, 2003).
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PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS
211

However, one should be critical with these data
since alternative explanations, like methodological
problems with the random generators, cannot be
completely excluded (Van den Noort, 2004a). In
addition, it is unknown whether non-linear
information processing as observed in random
generator data is the same mechanism underlying
biological organisms. Therefore, more (brain)
research in the direct human computer emotional
interaction is needed.
Finally, research on human unconscious
information processing could give important new
insights on human consumer behavior (Dijksterhuis,
2004; Dijksterhuis et al., 2006a; 2006b); and as a
result may lead to new commercial strategies on
how multinationals could further improve their sales.
An influential study on unconscious information
processing and human consumer behavior was
recently published by Dijksterhuis et al. (2006a). In
four studies on consumer choice, both in the
laboratory as well as among actual shoppers, they
found that purchases of complex products were
viewed more favorably when decisions had been
made in the absence of attentive deliberation.
Contrary to conventional wisdom and previous
studies on consumer behavior (e.g. Bettman, Luce,
and Payne, 1998; Kahneman, 2003), it is not always
advantageous to engage in thorough conscious
deliberation before choosing.
In future research, it would be interesting to
replicate the ERP study in the MRI scanner.
Combined recording could give us more direct
information on the exact time-window and location
of the brain activation (Eichele et al., 2005).
Moreover, it would be interesting to test the
existence of non-linear information processing by
using other experimental paradigms like the
gambling paradigm (Bechara, Damasio, Damasio,
and Anderson, 1994; Bechara, Damasio, Tranel, and
Damasio, 1997). In this paradigm, skin conductance
is measured just before participants take a winning
or losing card from one of four randomized decks of
cards. These decks are designed in such a manner
that they are advantageous in the long run. This
paradigm can be used to examine if participants’
physiology reflects learned, unconscious knowledge
about the decks before the participants are
consciously aware that the decks are biased (Bechara
and Damasio, 2002; Bechara, Dolan, and Hindes,
2002).
It is obvious, that if the neuroimaging results
could be repeated with other methodological
paradigms as well; this would highly support the
hypothesis of non-linear information processing in
the human brain. Therefore, it is important to
exclude all methodological issues that could
otherwise explain this phenomenon. With respect to
this, replication studies with other methodological
paradigms will be necessary.
5 CONCLUSIONS
The results that were presented in this paper might
surprise scientists, who have a more conservative
view on quantum physics and cognitive
neuroscience. In the conventional approach, it has
been generally accepted that the brain can be
modelled, according to the principles of classical
physics, as a neural network (e.g. Hopfield, 1982;
1994; Khanna, 1990). However, physical effects in
the functioning of the nervous system that lie outside
the realm of classical physics suggest that these
models are over simplified (Hagan, Hameroff, and
Tuszyński, 2000).
It is obvious that we are only beginning to
understand quantum information processing in the
human brain and more research is definitely needed
(Penrose, 2005; Van den Noort and Bosch, 2006).
This new research field is important since it could
have important theoretical and practical
implications:
1) First of all, it could have important theoretical
consequences in the way we understand physics and
information processing in the brain (Hameroff,
1998; 2006). Perhaps it is time to redefine nature
and describe it not in particles, molecules, waves
etc., but as a very large information processor, of
which human beings are only a small part (Van den
Noort et al., 2005b)?
2) Moreover, this research field could give new
explanations on how the brain may give rise to
conscious experience (Greenfield, 1995; 2000).
3) Finally, it could lead to important new
information technologies and applications that could
have a huge impact on our future daily life
(Greenfield, 2003; 2006).
To conclude, unconscious (emotional)
information processing plays an important role in
human functioning (e.g. Chartrand, Van Baaren, and
Bargh, 2006; Chen and Bargh, 1999; Dijksterhuis
and Nordgren, 2006). This research field is
particularly important since it will give important
new insights in the way that humans interact with
other objects (e.g. computers, other humans etc.).
Moreover, it could create direct applications as well,
for instance, it could lead to new and better
commercial strategies for multinationals.
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212

“No doubt there is only one world, the true nature
of which we do not even glimpse at present.”
– Roger Penrose
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