A Review on Charging Systems for Electric Vehicles in Smart Cities
Mohamed A. Abd El Ghany
1,2
1
Electronics Department, German University in Cairo, Egypt
2
Integrated Electronic Systems Lab, TU Darmstadt, Germany
Keywords: Electric Vehicle, Charging System, V2V, Wireless Power Transfer.
Abstract: An overview of types of electric vehicles and the variant batteries which the electric vehicles currently use is
demonstrated. Different charging systems are presented. Plug-in charging system which is either on-board or
off board is investigated. Moreover, fundamentals of wireless charging are analyzed for smart cities. Current
market perspectives are provided. A hybrid charging system is also discussed. Different approaches for
vehicle to vehicle charging either using plug or wireless charging are provided.
1 INTRODUCTION
Batteries are the main energy source of electric
vehicles (EVs). However, some types of EVs also
rely on other energetic components. Many systems
have been developed for charging Electric Vehicles
(EVs) batteries. The main two technologies are Plug-
In (Turksoy, et al., 2018) and Wireless charging
Systems (Bosshard, et al, 2016). Plug-in charging
systems are hazardous and pose the danger of electric
shocks (Freschi, et al, 2018); however, they are easier
to implement and mostly have higher efficiency.
Wireless Chargers, on the other hand, are safer and
eliminate the inconvenience imposed by the bulkiness
of the cables. Nonetheless, having the wired (plug-in)
and wireless charging systems available at the same
time is critical, especially before the wireless
charging infrastructure is readily available
(Chinthavali, et al, 2016).
Wireless power transfer (WPT) is a convenient
way for electric and plug-in hybrid electric vehicle
charging that has seen rapid growth in recent years for
stationary and even dynamic applications. The size of
the couplers in WPT systems can be reduced and the
power transfer density increased by designing the
systems to operate at higher frequencies. Higher
operating frequencies also enable smaller power
electronics associated with WPT systems (as shown
in Figure 1) thanks to a decrease in energy storage
requirements.
Today, real-time charging from the utility grid is
recognized to be the mainstream way of ’fueling’
electric vehicles (EVs). However, since the current
EV penetration rates are very limited, many of the
problems such as increased distribution level peak
demand. Studies show that residential EV charging
will result in disruptive problems in the distribution
grid of the future (Cuchý, et al, 2018), (Graber, et al,
2018), (Chentong, et al, 2019), (Luigi, et al, 2019), and
(Veneri,et al, 2017). This indicates that residential EV
charging must be accompanied by faster public
stations to sustain the EV growth.
Vehicle-to-vehicle (V2V) Charge Sharing
Network (CSN) philosophy can provide an
alternative, more convenient, and flexible way of
conducting EV charging. The design and
implementation of V2V CSN will greatly reduce the
range anxiety of EVs with minimal infrastructure cost
(Ucer, et al, 2019).
This survey is organized into 7 sections. Section I
provides a brief introduction to the topic this study is
concerned with. An overview of types of EVs and
batteries is given in section II. Section III discusses
plug-in charging systems. Fundamentals of wireless
power transfer and wireless charging systems along
with market analysis is given section IV. Further,
section V gives a unique overview of combining the
wired and wireless charging systems. Section VI
discuss the concept of vehicle to vehicle charging.
The conclusion of this survey and possible future
work is highlighted in section VII
El Ghany, M.
A Review on Charging Systems for Electric Vehicles in Smart Cities.
DOI: 10.5220/0010463105710578
In Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Vehicle Technology and Intelligent Transport Systems (VEHITS 2021), pages 571-578
ISBN: 978-989-758-513-5
Copyright
c
2021 by SCITEPRESS Science and Technology Publications, Lda. All rights reserved
571
2 TYPES OF ELECTRIC
VEHICLES
Batteries are the main energy source of EVs but some
types of EVs also rely on other energetic components.
Thus, there may be some EVs which work with
electric propulsion alone while others also employ an
Internal Combustion Engine (ICE). On that basis, the
Technical Committee 69 of the International
Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) has established
the following classification of electric vehicles
running with batteries:
Battery Electric Vehicle (BEV). Power is
inserted into the drive train exclusively by
means of batteries.
Hybrid electric vehicle (HEV). This refers to
vehicles with two or more types of energy
source or storage, providing one of them with
electrical energy.
Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicle (PHEV). This
type of vehicle mainly uses the electrical power
train to run.
Battery Technology in EVs. Batteries are the main
storage element used in EVs. These elements make it
possible to store energy in chemical form and convert
it to electrical energy when required. The
characteristics of the batteries, such as the density of
energy and power, are defined by the technology
used. Although many of them have characteristics
that meet the criteria of electric vehicles, power is
usually a limiting factor for some tasks such as
acceleration and regenerative braking.
The battery technology used in electric vehicles
has evolved over time, especially in recent years with
the emergence of large vehicle manufacturers in this
market. Lead-acid batteries were the first type of
battery used to start the internal combustion engines
in vehicles. Some manufacturers, such as Toyota and
General Motors, have tested this technology in BEVs.
However, the low energy density of this kind of
battery does not make them suitable for pure EVs.
ZEBRA batteries, also known as molten salt batteries,
have been used for some vehicle concepts and urban
bus models (O’Sullivan, et al, 2006). These batteries
have a good energy density, but they need to operate
at high temperatures (between 270 and 350 C). This
restriction means that this technology is only viable
in vehicles with a continuous operation in order to
maintain the working temperature.
NiMH technology has been widely used in the
market (Iclodean, et al, 2017). Despite the low
efficiency of this technology and a slightly higher
weight than others, its good energy and power density
combined with its simplicity, low cost and useful
lifetime make it a good solution for HEVs and
PHEVs. However, Lithium-ion or simply Li-ion
batteries are the market leaders thanks to their
electrical features. Within this group of batteries, we
find a wide variety of different types. The types of Li-
ion batteries vary according to the specific chemical
combination found at the anode and the cathode.
Although the combination most widely used in
consumer applications is Lithium-Cobalt Oxide
(LCO), its use does not extend to electric vehicles due
to safety concerns. Instead, the most common
solutions for automotive applications are lithium-
nickel-manganese-cobalt (NMC), lithium-nickel-
cobalt-aluminum (NCA) and lithium-iron phosphate
(LFP). Table 1 summaries the main electrical features
of the batteries discussed above (Kumar, et al, 2017).
Table 1: Comparative Table of Electric Vehicle Batteries.
Nominal
Power
Life
Production
Voltage(V)
(Wh/Kg)
Cycle
Cost/60 KWh
Lead acid
2
180
1000
$4,800
Nickel-metal
1.2
200-300
<3000
$20,000
Hybrid
ZEBRA
2.6
155
>1200
$19,600
Li-ion
3.6
200-430
2000
$12,000
Li-iron
3.2
2000-4500
>1200
$28,000
Phosphate
3 PLUG-IN CHARGING
SYSTEMS
This section gives a quick overview of plug-in battery
charging systems for electric vehicles. Battery
Chargers can be categorized into two main categories,
on-board and off-board, with the two options of
unidirectional and bidirectional power transfer, this is
decided according to the place where the charger is
installed (Turksoy, et al., 2018).
Battery chargers are a kind of power converter
that supplies power from the network to the battery
pack. The charger usually creates a non-linear load in
the power system. Charging the battery with high
efficiency is not the only concern of a well-designed
charger, but also to meet the international standards
(Pan, et al, 2017). The comparisons of on-board vs.
off-board battery charger features are given in Table
2.
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572
Table 2: The comparison of On-board vs. Off-board battery
chargers.
Figure 1: Circuit topology of bridgeless interleaved boost
PFC. (Turksoy, et al., 2018).
Unidirectional charger is a power converter with
simple control structure where the power is supplied
in only one direction from the network to the battery
pack; while bidirectional battery chargers are power
converters that charge the battery pack from the
network and transmit this power to the grid when the
network needs it (Tashakor et al, 2017). The
characteristics of the battery charger affects the
battery life and charge time.
The first stage of a two-stage EV battery charger
carries out the AC DC conversion with power factor
correction (PFC). The second stage is DC-DC
converter which is convert the output DC voltage
level of AC-DC PFC converter to the battery DC
voltage level (Chen, et al, 2011). Figures 1 and 2
show the topologies of a PFC and a DC-DC
converter.
The safety of EVs users may be challenged by the
vehicle’s increased operating voltages, at different
frequencies, possibly making the protection against
direct and indirect contacts more complex. As a
result, plug-in EVs must meet minimum safety
requirements. Consumer safety may be affected by
various hazards associated with human interaction
with these vehicles, including chemical, collision,
electrical, and fire risks. The chemical hazard is
associated with a given battery technology and stems
from the potential chemical release of the battery’s
reactive constituents, with which people may come
into con-tact (Freschi, et al, 2018).
Figure 2: Interleaved Buck-boost DC-DC converter
(Turksoy, et al., 2018).
4 WIRELESS CHARGING
SYSTEMS
4.1 Fundamentals of Wireless Power
Transfer
Wireless power transfer is supported by an
electromagnetic wave travelling from the power
emitter to the power receiver. In WPT systems, the
electromagnetic field is exclusively generated to
transfer power. Conversely, energy harvesting
techniques make use of the electromagnetic waves
generated to transfer information to acquire energy to
power devices. Thus, energy harvesting techniques
are restricted to the requirements imposed by the
information transfer, which are not present in WPT
technologies.
The behavior of an electromagnetic wave is
defined by Maxwell’s equations. Simplification of
these equations is possible when some conditions
hold, leading to the near-field and far-field operation.
Both scenarios are described next.
Near-field Operation or Non-radiative
Propagation. Three conditions must be satisfied to
work in this kind of scenario. They are:
The size of the transmitter element, L, is much
smaller than the wavelength λ.
The distance between the energy emitter and the
receiver is much smaller than the wavelength λ.
The distance between the transmitter and the
receiver is much smaller than (2L
2
)= λ.
Far-field Operation or Radiative Propagation.
This is based on the electric field of the
electromagnetic wave. In this case, the conditions are:
The distance between the energy emitter and the
receiver is greater than the wavelength λ.
The size of the transmitter element LDEV is
more than 10 times greater than the wavelength
λ.
1) Inductive WPT: Inductive WPT is realized with
the magnetic field of the electromagnetic wave. The
A Review on Charging Systems for Electric Vehicles in Smart Cities
573
operation principle is explained by the interaction of
the magnetic and electrical behavior described by
Ampere’s` Law and Faraday’s Law. According to
Ampere’s` Law, a current-carrying wire generates a
magnetic field around it. The intensity of the
magnetic field and its orientation depend on the
topology of the wire. Specifically, Ampere’s` Law (1)
states that:
 (1)
where H is the magnetic field intensity of the
magnetic field generated by the electric current I and
dl is the differential element of length along the path
on which the current travels.
Unlike simple wires, coils are able to concentrate,
to a higher degree, the magnetic field around the area
in which they are defined. As described by Ampere’s`
Law, when a time-varying current passes through a
coil, a time-varying current magnetic field is
generated around this element. If that time-varying
magnetic field traverses a different coil, a voltage
(e
ind
) is induced in its terminals. This effect is
described by Faraday’s Law as follows (2):



(2)
where is the flux of the magnetic field passing in
the area limited by the coil. Inductive WPT
technology requires a pair of coils referred to as the
primary and secondary coils.
2) Magnetic Resonance WPT: Magnetic
resonance or resonant WPT can be considered an
improvement on inductive WPT in which the
electrical system is forced to work under resonant
conditions. To meet this requirement, the pair of coils
is connected to structures composed of reactive
elements such as capacitors or additional coils. These
structures are referred to as the compensation
networks.
The most simple compensation topologies consist
of a single capacitor, which may be connected to the
primary and the secondary in series or in parallel.
These networks are referred to as mono-resonant
compensation topologies. Alternative, more complex
compensation topologies are also an option. These are
identified as multi-resonant compensation topologies.
4.2 Wireless Chargers for Electric
Vehicles
Due to the current environmental crisis, there is great
interest in developing new trends in the sustainable
transportation sector. In this context, EVs are
expected to significantly decrease greenhouse gas
emissions and, in turn, lead to a healthier living
\environment. A number of facts support this
prediction. According to the United States
Environmental Protection Agency, nearly 28.9% of
the greenhouse gas emissions of the United States in
2017 were derived from the transportation sector (US
EPA, 2015), (Sato, et al, 2016).
4.3 Wireless Power Transfer Market
Perspectives
Presented below is a review of a number of
technology providers that lead the EV-WPT market
(Choi, et al, 2015):
-WiTricity: WiTricitys 3.611 kW EV charging
products show an overall system efficiency of 90
93%. WiTricity works actively with global
standardization agencies such as SAE International
and IEC/ISO. The WiTricity EV wireless products
offer several charging rates varying from 3.6 to 11
kW to meet different EV battery needs and with a
single system design.
-Qualcomm: This technology offers a power rate
ranging from 3.3 to 20 kW at an overall efficiency
greater than 90%. Qualcomm technology uses
patented innovative technology that enables highly
efficient power transfer even when the charging pads
are not completely aligned.
-Evatran: Evatran offers a 7.2 kW-production
plugless system charging a BMWi3 across 254mm of
clearance. The charging time of different systems is
presented in Table 3.
Table 3: Comparative table of charging times.
4.4 Wireless Charging Systems
The industry has experienced huge progress in
inductive WPT technology for stationary charging of
EVs the past decade (Bosshard, et al, 2016). In
today’s market, stationary chargers are already
available. However, for magnetic flux guidance and
shielding, inductive WPT systems require ferrite
cores. This makes them expensive and bulky. The
operating frequencies are kept under 100 KHz to limit
the losses in the ferrites. This results in low transfer
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574
power densities and larger coils. The high cost and
low power transfer density pose huge challenges for
dynamic WPT, as these systems need to have very
high power capability in order to deliver sufficient
energy to the vehicle during its very brief time
passing over a charging coil.
For these reasons dynamic inductive WPT is yet
to become commercially viable, although a few
experimental systems have been demonstrated (Choi,
et al, 2015) (Onar, et al, 2013). The inductive WPT is
shown in Figure 3.
Figure 3: Inductive WPT using plates coupled through
electric fields (Choi, et al, 2015).
Achieving effective power transfer limits WPT
systems’ operating frequency to be close to the
resonant frequency of the resonant tank formed by the
reactances (capacitive and inductive) of the coupler
and compensating network. However, the coupler
reactance depends on the vehicle’s road clearance,
and varies as the vehicle moves across the charger. A
reduction in power transfer and WPT system
efficiency is then caused by the drift between the
resonant and operating frequency.
Figure 4: A capacitive wireless power transfer (WPT)
system with an active variable reactance (AVR) rectifier
that can provide continuously variable compensation by
controlling the voltages V
1
and V
2
(Regensburger, et al,
2017).
Adaptive impedance matching techniques include the
use of saturable and variable inductors (James, et al,
2005), but these techniques reduce system efficiency
and do not scale well with power. An example of a
high frequency rectifier and inverter architecture, that
compensate for coupling variations , while operating
at fixed frequency and maintaining high efficiency is
the active variable reactance (AVR) rectifier shown
in Figure 4.
By appropriately controlling the output voltages
of its two coupled rectifiers, the AVR can provide
continuously variable compensation while
maintaining optimum soft switching to ensure high
efficiency. This compensation architecture ensures
that the output power of the WPT system is
maintained at a fixed level across wide variations in
coupling and is applicable to both capacitive and
inductive WPT systems.
5 COMBINED WIRED AND
WIRELESS CHARGING
SYSTEMS
This section gives a unique overview of combining
the wired and wireless charging functionalities as
presented in (Chinthavali, et al, 2016). As the number
of EVs increase, the market is in continuous need for
reduction in cost size while increasing the efficiency
and the power rating of on-board chargers. Further,
on- and off-board plug-in chargers pose the hazard of
electric shock along with the heavy weight and large
size of cables. Implementing WPT, ergo having
wireless chargers seems to solve these problems;
however, having the wired (plug-in) and wireless
charging systems available at the same time is critical,
especially before the wireless charging infrastructure
is readily available. Achieving the integrated system
using same components for both charging systems
substantial cost benefits could be achieved
(Chinthavali, et al, 2015).
Figure 5 shows the overall proposed integrated
system. The topology five stages of power conversion
from the wall to the vehicle battery in the wireless
charging mode and four stages in the wired charging
mode.
5.1 Wireless Charging Mode
Figure 6 demonstrates the circuit topology for the
wireless mode of operation. Utility ac power is
converted to controllable dc voltage by the active
front-end rectifier with power factor correction
(PFC). Adjustable dc voltage is applied to the input
of the high frequency (HF) full-bridge inverter with a
controlled duty ratio.
A Review on Charging Systems for Electric Vehicles in Smart Cities
575
Figure 5: Integrated system topology on the circuit level. (US EPA, 2015).
Figure 6: Wireless charging system topology on the circuit level. (US EPA, 2015).
Figure 7: Wired charging system topology on the circuit level. (Chinthavali, et al, 2015).
The HF stage delivers excitation current to a series
tuned primary coil for magnetic field generation that
is linked to the secondary coil on the vehicle across
the air gap. Voltage induced at the secondary is
rectified, filtered, and delivered to the vehicle HV
battery.
5.2 Wired Charging Mode
The HF transformer solution also provides the
flexibility of using the system as a wired charger. This
can be achieved by simply using a relay system that
can be operated to disconnect the resonant coil system
and connect the output of the HF transformer to the
on-board section of the integrated charger system.
The wired charging mode of operation has four power
conversion stages. This mode of operation will enable
the EV users to use the plug-in charger wherever there
is no wireless charging option. Figure 7 shows the
topology for the wired mode of operation
(Chinthavali, et al, 2015).
6 VEHICLE TO VEHICLE
CHARGING SYSTEMS
In the near future, the concept of vehicle to X (V2X),
that is transmitting electricity from an on board
battery to infrastructure, is expected to spread. V2X
is a collective term for such as, vehicle to live (V2L),
vehicle to home (V2H), and vehicle to grid (V2G)
(Panchal, et al, 2018). For example, this can be used
as an emergency power source to charge electric
appliances (Izumi, et al, 2014). V2H and V2G
technologies have started to be put to practical use.
However, in this section the main purpose is to study
the vehicle-to-vehicle technology.
The energy transfer between EVs will be through a
bidirectional DC-DC converter in a conductive way
which can take place at parking lots of workplaces,
campuses, or residential premises and highways. As
proposed by (Cuchý, et al, 2018) the (V2V) Charge
Sharing Network (CSN) philosophy shall provide an
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alternative, more convenient, and flexible way of
conducting EV charging.
V2V charging requires an analysis in terms of
how to match suppliers to receivers with efficient
matching algorithms and how to enable energy
exchange with current EV charging technologies
(Mou, et al, 2018). Three different approaches for
V2V energy transfer have been compared in (Sousa,
et al, 2018): vehicle-to-grid and grid-to-vehicle
(V2G+G2V), V2V over direct ac interconnection
(acV2V), and V2V over dc interconnection (dcV2V).
It was concluded that dcV2V is more efficient than
the other options due to reduced number of energy
conversions.
Figure 8: Bidirectional DC-DC converters for V2V charger
(Cuchý, 2018).
The dc-dc converter topologies investigated in this
paper are non-isolated as there is no grid connection
requirement (Cuchý, et al, 2018). One of the
candidate solutions to this operation is known as
bidirectional dc-dc converters is shown in Figure 8.
As a practical industry example, there is a V2V
charging realized by Andromeda Power using Orca
Inceptive’ (Andromeda Power, 2020).
7 CONCLUSIONS
In this survey, different EV battery charging systems
are discussed, along with the various battery types
used for different EVs. A theoretical overview on the
various WPT techniques is provided. Multiple WPT
systems are discussed for smart cities. The overview
of each topology is presented. Research is still needed
on the health effects of long-term exposure to weak
electric and magnetic fields, methods to determine
optimal charger power levels and spacing for cost
effectiveness and approaches to analyze impacts of
large-scale WPT system deployment on the electric
grid.
As for future applications, 3 main concepts shall
be considered. First, Wireless vehicle to grid (W-
V2G) which can offer a solution alongside advanced
scheduling for charging and discharging to the
distribution network.
Secondly, in Wheel wireless charging system
(IW-WCS) where receiver coils are placed in a
parallel combination inside the tire. This technology
can rectify air-gap problems. It has been developed
for both stationary and dynamic applications. The
third application is wireless vehicle-to-vehicle
charging technology structure, where the transmitter
coil and the receiver coil are embedded in the front
and rear of the car, respectively. With a limited
number of charging stations, this technology can be
used to increase charging opportunities through
vehicle-to-vehicle (V2V) charging. At present,
charging stations require regular maintenance and
service to ensure the equipment is working properly.
The wireless V2V charging system can help to solve
this issue. The main issue with the wireless V2V
charging technology is the angular offset due to the
change in the location of the vehicle and the reduced
battery size.
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