Conservation Studies of Korean Stone Heritages
Chan Hee Lee
Department of Cultural Heritage Conservation Sciences, Kongju National University, Gongju, 32588, Republic of Korea
Keywords: Korean stone heritages, Conservation, Weathering, Damage, Environmental control.
Abstract: In Republic of Korea, a peninsula country located at the eastern region of the Asian continent, is mostly
composed of granite and gneiss. The southern Korean peninsula stated approximately 7,000 tangible cultural
heritages. Of these, the number of stone heritages are 1,882 (26.8%), showing a diverse types such as stone
pagoda (25.8%), stone Buddha statues (23.5%), stone monuments (18.1%), petroglyph, dolmen, fossils and
etc. Igneous rock accounts for the highest portion of the stone used for establishing Korean stone heritages,
forming approximately 84% of state-designated cultural properties. Among these, granite was used most
often, 68.2%, followed by diorite for 8.2%, and sandstone, granite gneiss, tuff, slate, marble, and limestone
at less than 4% each. Furthermore, values of the Korean stone heritages are discussed as well as various
attempts for conservation of the original forms of these heritages. It is generally known that the weathering
and damage degrees of stone heritage are strongly affected by temperature and precipitation. The most Korean
stone heritages are corresponded to areas of middle to high weathering according to topography and annual
average temperature and precipitation of Korea. Therefore, examination of environmental control methods
are required for conservation considering the importance of stone heritages exposed to the outside conditions,
and monitoring and management systems should be established for stable conservation in the long term.
1 INTRODUCTION
Republic of Korea, a peninsula country located at the
eastern region of the Asian continent, has mountains
covering approximately 70% of its entire territory and
four distinct seasons (Fig. 1a). Traditional religions
practiced here are Buddhism and Confucianism,
which have had a considerable influence on cultural
development, thought and behavior in the ancient
Korean kingdoms and states. After the modern era,
Christianity and Catholicism were introduced in
Korea from the West. The first state of the Korean
peninsula was Gojoseon (BC 2333 to BC 108),
followed by the Three Kingdoms Period (Goguryeo,
Baekje and Silla; BC 57 to 675), Unified Silla (676 to
935) and Balhae (698 to 926). Goryeo (918 to 1392)
and Joseon (1392 to 1910) Dynasty followed in the
middle and middle to modern periods, respectively.
Through the colonial period from 1910 to 1945,
Korea achieved independence, whereas North and
South were divided based on the 38th parallel. In
1948, Republic of Korea was formally established.
More than half of the Korean peninsula is
composed of granite and granite gneiss. The former
was mainly intruded during the Triassic, Jurassic and
Cretaceous periods, whereas the latter was mostly
metamor-phosed due to granitization of sedimentary
rock during the Pre-Cambrian eons (Fig. 1b). These
rocks were exposed to the surface of the earth due to
diastrophism during several periods, and uplift and
denudation phenomena of the Korean peninsula
generated from the beginning of the Tertiary period,
thereby distributing the sedimentary rock on the
gneiss (Cheong et al., 2013). This geological
distribution of the Korean peninsula is closely related
to selection of materials for establishing stone
heritages as well as construction techniques.
The National Research Institute of Cultural
Heritage in Korea (2011) stated that approximately
7,000 tangible cultural properties exist in Korea
including national treasures, tangible cultural
properties of cities and provinces, and cultural
property materials. Of these, the number of stone
heritages is 1,882 (26.8%), showing a diverse
composition range from petroglyphs and dolmens
during the prehistoric ages to stone pagodas, stone
Buddha statues, stone monuments, rock-carved
Buddha statues, stone stupa, and flagpole supports
during the historical period. In particular, stone
pagodas (25.8%), stone Buddha statues (23.5%) and
stone monuments (18.1%) account for the highest
portions of the existing stone heritages (Fig. 1c).
42
Lee, C.
Conservation Studies of Korean Stone Heritages.
DOI: 10.5220/0010294500003051
In Proceedings of the International Conference on Culture Heritage, Education, Sustainable Tourism, and Innovation Technologies (CESIT 2020), pages 42-56
ISBN: 978-989-758-501-2
Copyright
c
2022 by SCITEPRESS Science and Technology Publications, Lda. All rights reserved
Figure 1: (a) Location of Korean peninsula. (b) Korean geological map. (c) Distribution map of representative Korean stone
heritages (Lee and Chun, 2013). 1; Dinosaur footprint fossil sites in Uhang-ri, Haenam. 2; Dinosaur trackways in Daechi-ri,
Haman. 3; Bangudae petroglyphs in Ulju. 4; Dolmen in Bugeun-ri, Ganghwa. 5; Silla Stele in Bongpyeong-ri, Uljin. 6; Five-
story Stone Pagoda in Jeongrimsaji Temple Site, Buyeo. 7; Rock-carved Buddha Triad in Yonghyeon-ri, Seosan. 8; Stone
Pagoda in Mireuksaji Temple Site, Iksan. 9; Chemseongdae in Gyeongju. 10; Dabo Pagoda and Three-story Stone Pagoda of
Bulguksa Temple. 11; Five-story Stone Pagoda of the Seongjusaji Temple Site in Boryeong. 12; Rock-carved Buddha Statues
of the Namharisaji Temple Site in Jeungpyeong. 13; Stone Standing Maitreya Statue of the Gwanchoksa Temple in Nonsan.
14; Five-story Stone Pagoda of the Magoksa Temple in Gongju. 15; Seoul City Wall. 16; Tombstone of Chungmugong Yi at
the Chungryeolsa Shrine in Namhae. 17; Gyeongju Seokbinggo. 18; Andong Seokbinggo. 19; Changnyeong Seokbinggo. 20;
Hyeonpung Seokbinggo. 21; Cheongdo Seokbinggo. 22; Yeongsan Seokbinggo.
Conservation Studies of Korean Stone Heritages
43
In this study, representative cultural properties were
selected according to type and material among
Korean stone heritages established during the
geologic, prehistoric and historical ages. Based on the
results of previous studies, each of the selected stone
heritages is briefly described in terms of historical
value, lithological characteristics, stone provenance,
deterioration state, non-destructive diagnosis and
conservation treatment. Furthermore, globally out-
standing characteristics and values of the Korean
stone heritages are discussed as well as various
attempts for preserving the original forms of these
heritages.
2 STONE HERITAGES OF GEO-
LOGICAL AND PREHISTORIC
AGES
2.1. Dinosaur Footprint Fossils of
Uhang-ri and Daechi-ri
Korea is globally renowned as an excavation site for
dinosaur footprint fossils, which are observed more
frequently than skeleton fossils and have been
unearthed in more than 20 regions. Main dinosaur
footprint fossil sites are shale-rich lacustrine
sedimentary rocks of various sub-basins such as the
Cretaceous Gyeongsang Basin (Huh et al., 2003).
Dinosaur footprint fossils of ornithopods are found
most frequently although those of theropods and
sauropods are also observed. Representative dinosaur
footprint fossils are as follows.
Large (Fig. 2a) and extra-large dinosaur footprint
fossils (Fig. 2b) in Uhang-ri, Haenam, mainly consist
of black shale (Fig. 2c); only extra-large dinosaur
footprint fossils in the open air are composed of
tuffaceous sandstone that includes quartz and albite
phenocrysts with rhyolite-rich matrix. Notable
physical damage to these footprint fossils are cracks,
delamination, fracture zone, and re-damage by repair
materials; that of chemical damage is efflorescence
(thenardite, Na2SO4) generated along the current
trace of water that flowed into fossil sites. Moreover,
the results of physical characteristics analysis of the
fossil sites using measurement of ultrasonic velocity
indicate that the fossils in these sites are highly
weathered (Yoo et al., 2012).
Dinosaur trackways in Daechi-ri, Haman, were
found in shale with purple and grayish-green strata
(Fig. 2d), consist of two ornithopod trackways with
an average depth of 29 mm and one sauropod
trackway with an average depth of 30 mm for manus
and 35 mm for pes (Fig. 2e). However, these fossils
underwent severe physical damage by cracks due to
relocation more than twice after the first excavation
in 1993 in addition to inappropriate conservation
treatment and secondary deterioration by plaster
repair materials, thereby requiring for comprehensive
improvement.
Thus, in 2008, scientific conservation treatment
was performed to remove previous repair materials,
which included cleaning and desalination through an
impregnation method, preliminary joining using a
three-dimensional drawing, fabrication of a
fiberglass-reinforced plastic (FRP) mold on the floor
surface, joining and filling of cracks and missing
parts, application of anti-swelling agents and
consolidating (Fig. 2f). Detailed investigation and
scientific conservation treatment of dinosaur
trackways greatly contributed to establishing a
customized conservation system (Lee et al., 2012).
2.2. Bangudae Petroglyphs
Petroglyphs are paintings or patterns carved on the
rock surfaces by using sharp parts of hard stones or
metal tools. These images serve as valuable materials
to represent the contemporary aesthetic conscious-
ness of ancestors, such as life, religion and
philosophy, who lived before the invention of writing
systems in the prehistoric age. Such artwork is a
universal cultural phenomenon; approximately
400,000 petroglyphs are widely distributed across
approximately 120 countries worldwide. Of these, 14
petroglyphs have been designated as World Heritage.
At present, approximately 20 petroglyphs exist in
Korea. In particular, petroglyphs in Cheonjeon-ri and
Bangudae in Deagok-ri, Ulju, are included on the
tentative lists (2010) of UNESCO World Heritages.
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Figure 1: Photographs showing the large (a) and extra-large dinosaur (b) footprint fossils in Uhang-ri, Haenam. (c) Black
shale composing of the large dinosaur footprint fossils. The shale lamination by accumulated clay and quartz (d), surface
depth modelling (e) and conservation treatments (f) of the dinosaur trackways in Daechi-ri, Haman. (Lee et al., 2012; Yoo et
al., 2012).
Among them, Korea National Treasure No. 285,
the Bangudae petroglyphs in Daegok-ri, Ulju,
represent first stone painting in Korea, and are
regarded as the most sophisticated relic to reflect life
of prehistoric people. In these petroglyphs, diverse
objects of expression such as whales, tigers, deer,
boar, turtles, ships, nets, harpoons, people and simply
human faces are more implicitly carved than those in
other remains (Fig. 3a). In particular, eight types of
whales and complex religious paintings related to
whaling are main expressions representing the
traditions of the whaling culture (Cultural Heritage
Administration of Korea, 2012).
However, the Bangudae petroglyphs are
repeatedly flooded and exposed for four to eight
months per year due to the Sayeon Dam constructed
in 1965, six years before the discovery of these rock
carvings. As a result, dark green hornfelsified shale,
rock properties of the petroglyph, forms a weathered
layer with an average porosity of 25% at a certain
depth from the surface, thereby showing differences
in mineral and chemical compositions compared with
the fresh surface with an average porosity of 0.4%
(Fig. 3b). The result of deterioration degree
evaluation indicates that approximately 23.8% of the
main rock surface areas were damaged (Fig. 3c) and
the lower areas of the petroglyphs have weaker
physical properties than those of the upper areas (Lee
et al., 2012). As such, Ulsan City and many
researchers including those with the Cultural Heritage
Administration of Korea are seeking a scheme of
permanently conserving the Bangudae petroglyphs.
Conservation Studies of Korean Stone Heritages
45
Figure 3: General view and occurrence (a), EPMA result of the weathered and unweathered parts (b), and deterioration map
(c) of the Bangudae petroglyphs in Ulju. (Cultural Heritage Administration of Korea, 2012; Lee et al., 2012).
3 STONE HERITAGES OF
HISTORICAL AGE
3.1 Five-story Stone Pagoda in
Jeongrimsaji Temple Site, Buyeo
(estimated the 6th to 7th century)
The Five-story Stone Pagoda in Jeongrimsaji Temple
Site, Buyeo (National Treasure No. 9), a valuable
pagoda constructed during the Baekje Kingdom, has
distinct historical and artistic values in that its original
form is well maintained, except for the upper part (Fig.
4a). In particular, this stone pagoda effectively
expresses the beauty of a simple and vibrant stone
tower by eschewing the complexities of wooden
structures. It is 8.92 m in height and consists of 149
members. With regard to style, its basement part is
significantly lower than its body part.
The pagoda’s rock material is porphyritic biotite
granodiorite and contains pegmatite veinlets, basic
xenoliths, and is consistently developed porphyritic
texture of plagioclase (Fig. 4b, 4c). The results of
provenance interpretation confirmed that Ong-
nyeobong Peak, which is located 15 km to 20 km from
Jeongrimsa Temple, and Mt. Hwa have same
mineralogical and geochemical characteristics with
those of this pagoda. In particular, ancient quarrying
traces were observed at many outcrops in this region,
thereby supporting the hypothesis that this region
could have been used to supply the stone (Fig. 4d).
Thus, the stone required for establishing this pagoda is
likely to have been supplied to Buyeo through the
Geum River from Ganggyeong Port (Fig. 4e, 4f) (Lee
et al., 2007).
3.2 Rock-carved Buddha Triad in
Yonghyeon-ri, Seosan (estimated
the 6th to 7th century)
The Rock-carved Buddha Triad in Yonghyeon-ri,
Seosan (National Treasure No. 84) is a representative
Buddha statue of the Baekje Kingdom constructed in
a rocky cliff of a gorge in Gaya Mountain; Pensive
Bodhisattva and Standing Bodhisattva are carved on
both sides of Standing Buddha (Fig. 5a). This Buddha
triad statue has been considered as the greatest
contemporary masterpiece because of its refined
carving style and unique triad composition. It is a
valuable cultural heritage that indicates contemporary
Buddhist culture and interchange relations such as the
spread of Buddha style from China and India based on
geopolitical location (Moon, 1999; Park, 2005). The
Buddha triad statue is carved on a rock slope
consisting of light gray medium-grained biotite
granite, and it shows low slope stability because rock
blocks of different sizes and shapes are formed across
the entire sides due to development of irregular
discontinuities (Lee et al., 2010).
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Figure 4: (a) Field occurrence of the Five-story Stone Pagoda in the Jeongrimsaji Temple Site. (b) Porphyritic granodiorite
containing pegmatite veinlets and basic xenoliths. (c) Mineral assemblage of plagioclase with albite twin, biotite altered partly
into chlorite, quartz and sphene. (d) Photographs showing the ancient quarrying trace from outcrop in the Oknyeobong Peak.
(e) Geum River nearby the Oknyeobong Peak. (f) A map showing the distance of movement of rock properties between the
stone pagoda, Oknyeobong Peak and the Mt. Hwa. (Lee et al., 2007).
In addition, since an enclosed traditional wooden
shelter was installed to protect this Buddha triad
statue from the atmospheric environment in 1965,
internal leakage problems have occurred continually
(Fig. 5b). In particular, limitations in the shelter’s
protective function owing to damage have resulted in
deteriorations to this statue by condensation, dust
deposition, and efflorescence. Moreover, visitors
have been inconvenienced due to a narrow observing
space in the protective canopy and insufficient
lighting. Consequently, to improve conservation and
the viewing conditions, the walls of the shelter were
partly disassembled in 2006 (Fig. 5c), and the shelter
was completely dismantled in 2007 (Fig. 5d). After
demolishing the shelter, conservation treatment and
maintenance of the surrounding environment were
performed in 2008; currently, the Buddha triad statue
is exposed to the external environment with no
protecting structure (Lee et al., 2014).
Figure 5: (a) Field occurrences (1959) of the Rock-carved Buddha Triad. (b) Enclosed traditional wooden shelter of Buddha
statue. (c) Semi-opening shelter partly disassembled the door and both walls. (d) The current state completely demolished the
shelter. (Lee et al., 2010).
Conservation Studies of Korean Stone Heritages
47
3.3 Stone Pagoda in Mireuksaji Temple
Site, Iksan (the 7th century)
Mireuksa Temple is the greatest Buddhist temple of
Baekje Kingdom established by King Mu (600 to
641), the 30th King of the Baekje. Three pagodas and
three main buildings are divided by corridors to form
respective areas (Fig. 6a). The middle area is
estimated to be a wooden pagoda site, and the eastern
pagoda was restored to nine stories in 1992. The
current Mireuksaji Stone Pagoda (National Treasure
No. 11) is a western pagoda located in the west area;
more than half has been destroyed except from the
basement to part of the sixth story (Fig. 6b). The stone
embankment was reinforced up to the first story based
on the west side, and the upper part was covered by
concrete for repair in 1915 (Fig. 6c). In January 2009,
the Buddhist reliquary was excavated at the first-story
center pillar stone of the stone pagoda. Inscription of
the Gihae year (639) confirmed in the golden sarira
enrichment record show the construction period of the
west pagoda and identify the main founders and
characteristics of the Mireuksa Temple (National
Research Institute of Cultural Heritage in Korea;
NRICH, 2013).
In 1998, a safety diagnosis results reported that
the structural stability of the stone pagoda was low,
and it was determined in 1999 to execute
deconstruction and repair. Since October 2001,
deconstruction, restoration, and maintenance have
been performed by the NRICH. Thus far,
deconstruction of the pagoda has been completed
except for the basement. During the processes of
deconstruction and excavation investment, detailed
data were collected through research in various fields
such as conservation science (Fig. 6d), construction
(Fig. 6e, 6f), archaeology, and art history, and repair
works for restoration (Fig. 6g) are currently being
performed (NRICH, 2014). The members of this
stone pagoda are composed of biotite granite, the
same rock type as that occurring near Mt. Mireuk, and
quarrying traces are scattered throughout the
mountain area (Yang et al., 2000). Furthermore, the
deterioration degree of the stone pagoda members
was evaluated, and method for original restoration
and selection of replacement stone were examined
(Lee et al., 2009; Kim et al., 2011).
3.4 Cheomseongdae in Gyeongju (the
7
th
century)
Cheomseongdae in Gyeongju (National Treasure No.
31) is an astronomical observation structure
constructed during the reign of Queen Sunduk (AD
647), the 27th ruler of Silla Kingdom, and is the
largest existing observatory in Asia (Fig. 7a). For
stone, alkali-feldspar granite (63%) was used for the
basement, the upper cylindrical body part, and a top
part of Cheomseongdae (Fig. 7b); micrographic
granite (27%) was used for the lower cylindrical body
part (Fig. 7c). However, since the two rock types have
similar mineralogical and geochemical
characteristics, they are considered to have been
generated from same granitic magma (Fig. 7d). It was
verified that these rocks originated from Mt. Nam at
the south of Cheomseongdae in which many ancient
quarrying traces are found.
Results of precise non-destructive diagnosis
indicate that structural problems such as cracks and
missing part occur mainly at the lower part of
Cheomseongdae, whereas the upper part was
damaged mostly by surface weathering such as
blistering, scaling, and granular disintegration (Fig.
7e). It was also determined that the surface was
mainly contaminated by darkening (37.3%) and
biological colonization (58.0%). In particular, the
darkening contaminants include microorganisms,
clay minerals, dust and micro soil particles, which
combined to form a thick layer that also led to
discoloration after iron-oxidizing substances
degraded from minerals, and consecutive applications
of plaster were added. Regarding physical properties
of rock used in Cheomseongdae, it was determined
through the ultrasonic velocity measurement that the
rocks were moderately weathered stage on average
(Jo et al., 2010).
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Figure 6: (a) Aerial photograph of the Mireuksaji Temple site in Iksan. (b) Western and eastern views of the
Mireuksaji stone pagoda before and after reconstruction in the 1910s. (c) A recent (1990s) view from the
northeastern side. (d) Steam cleaning to remove the surface contaminants. (e) Three-dimensional modeling to
apply restoration and conservation treatment of the stone pagoda. (f) Virtual assembling of the basement part
using three-dimensional simulation. (g) Three-dimensional model and restoration idea of the stone pagoda. (Lee
et al., 2009; NRICH, 2013).
Figure 7: (A) Field Occurrence of Cheomseongdae. Polarizing Microscope Images of Alkali-Feldspar Granite
(B) and Micrographic Granite (C). (D) X-Ray Diffraction Pattern and Magnetic Susceptibilities of Component
Stones. (E) Infrared Thermographic Image on the Blistering. (Jo Et Al., 2010).
Conservation Studies of Korean Stone Heritages
49
3.5 Dabo Pagoda and Three-story Stone
Pagoda of Bulguksa Temple (the 8
th
century)
Bulguksa Temple in Gyeongju was built in the 10th
year (751) of the reign of King Gyeongdeok of
Unified Silla Kingdom. The Dabo Pagoda (National
Treasure No. 20), representative of special pagodas,
is located at the fontal east of main Buddhist hall, and
the Three-story Stone Pagoda (National Treasure No.
21), representative of general pagodas, is at the west.
It is easily observed that the latter, with a height of
10.8 m, is a three-story pagoda established on two-
story basement, whereas the number of stories of the
Dabo Pagoda, with a height of 10.3 m, is un-
determined. Equigranular medium-grained alkali-
feldspar granite in which small druse is developed
was used in the two stone pagodas; rocks for other
parts are mixed (Lee et al., 2005).
In 1925, the Dabo Pagoda was comprehensively
deconstructed for repair, and its lower quadrangular
banister of the second story and upper part were
repaired in 1972. Nevertheless, due to inappropriate
drainage at the second-story banister, the first-story
support structure was damaged by weathering. Since
repair was urgently needed, the NRICH performed
conservation treatments in December 2008.
Specifically, after preliminary investigation including
the processes of three-dimensional scanning and
making a deterioration map of the stone pagoda, eight
members in poor condition were replaced by partially
disassembling the quadrangular banister of the
second story, octagonal banister, and upper part(Fig
8a, 8b).
Moreover, conservation treatments were
performed on crack and blistering parts, and by
removing concrete and cement mortar at joints and
performing cleaning, the conservation process was
completed in December 2009 (NRICH, 2011). Parts
of the Three-story Stone Pagoda damaged during an
attempted robbery case in 1966 were partially
repaired. In December 2010, crack 1.32 m length and
5 mm in maximum width were confirmed in the cover
stone on the northeastern upper basement through
regular safety inspection. As a result, deconstruction
and repair measures are being performed and are due
to be completed in 2014.
Figure 8: Field Occurrences and Deterioration Maps of the Dabo Pagoda (A) and the Three-Story Pagoda (B) in Bulguksa
Temple. (Lee, 2007).
3.6 Stone Standing Maitreya Statue of
the Gwanchoksa Temple in Nonsan
(estimated the 10
th
to 11
th
century)
At a height of approximately 18 m, the Stone
Standing Maitreya Statue of the Gwanchoksa Temple
(Treasure No. 218) is the largest stone statue of
Buddha in Korea (Fig. 9a). It is located on a slightly
inclined outcrop of granodiorite against a backdrop of
Mt. Banya (Fig. 9b). Overall, this Buddha’s feet are
carved in natural bedrock without a pedestal, whereas
the upper and lower body and both arms are
composed of large stones to establish a complete
statue. A cylindrical high crown appears on the head,
expressing baldachin that has the square Gat shape of
a traditional Korean hat. On the face, which is
comparatively larger than the body, the eyes, nose,
and mouth are adjusted to completely fill the entire
face, thus enabling the face to overcome a flat image
and have a strong impression. The Buddha’s linear
eyes appear very sharp; the pupils, composed of black
shale, realistically express the image of the stone
sculpture (Fig. 9c).
This standing stone Maitreya statue had been
physically weathered by blistering and scaling, and
secondary contaminants and deposits are scattered
around it (Fig. 9d). Moreover, a collapse risk of the
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host rock due to development of discontinuities is
present, and a high amount of crustose lichens covers
the statue; fungi, algae, and bryophytes are also
present (Yun et al., 2006). As such, to protect this
statue from contamination by lichens, blistering, and
cracks, conservation treatments were conducted in
2007 based on preliminary investigation with regard
to conservation science. Overall processes were
performed in the order of dry and wet cleaning,
joining of cracks, and reinforcement of missing parts
using replacement rock; maintenance of surrounding
environments was also conducted.
3.7 Five-story Stone Pagoda of the
Magoksa Temple in Gongju
(estimated the 13
th
century)
The Five-story Stone Pagoda of the Magoksa Temple
in Gongju (Treasure No. 799) is a representative
cultural heritage of the late Goryeo Dynasty and was
constructed under the influence of Lamaism (Fig.
10a). On the second-story body part of this pagoda,
the mystic Buddhas of the Four Directions are
embossed, whereas the upper part consists of a
Lamaistic-style Pungmadong, which is unique in that
it is found only at the existing White Pagoda of the
Miaoying Temple in Beijing, China, and at the
pagoda of the Magoksa Temple. This stone pagoda is
composed mainly of dark gray fine-grained quartz
diorite. The second-story body part and dew tray
consist of granodiorite, and the basement, which was
replaced during deconstruction and restoration works
in 1970, is composed of biotite granite (Fig. 10b). The
texture and color of biotite granite differ completely
from those of quartz diorite, which is the main rock
used, thereby leading to a sense of substantial
heterogeneity in appearance (Jo et al., 2012).
Figure 9: (a) Frontal view of the stone standing Maitreya statue of Gwanchoksa Temple in Nonsan. (b) Granodiorite composed
of quartz, plagioclase, microcline and biotite. (c) Slate consisting of pupil part. (d) Two-dimensional modeling using
ultrasonic velocity.
This stone pagoda is highly unstable due to a
comprehensively low gradual decrease rate and
because its northern part was substantially damaged
when the Daegwangbojeon Hall was set on fire in
1782. Thus, it has lost most of its original form. In
addition, constant deformation occurred even after
deconstruction and restoration of this pagoda in the
1970s, thus resulting in missing part, cracks,
blistering, and scaling of original rock and repair
materials, which could be easily observed by the
naked eye (Jo and Lee, 2014). Hence, precise safety
diagnosis including ground exploration and
behavioral monitoring was performed in 2006; dete-
rioration degree evaluation, three-dimensional
scanning and monitoring were done in 2008 (Fig.
10c); and infrared thermographic analysis and
investigation using an endoscope were conducted in
2012 (Fig. 10d). Based on the results, scientific
conservation treatments have been performed to
maintain the original form of this pagoda.
Conservation Studies of Korean Stone Heritages
51
Figure 10: (a) Current appearance of the Magoksa Temple stone pagoda. (b) Lithological map of the stone pagoda. (c)
Contour two-dimensional map by projecting the ultrasonic velocity of the stone pagoda. (d) Digital photographs and
thermographic images of representative blistering zones and blistering map of the stone pagoda. (Jo et al., 2012; Jo and Lee,
2014).
3.8 Seoul City Wall (after the 14
th
century)
The Seoul City Wall (Historic Site No. 10), at
approximately 18.1 km, was constructed to protect
Hanyang (now Seoul), the capital in the Joseon
Dynasty (Fig. 11a). Since the beginning of its
construction in the fifth year of King Taejo (1396)
(Fig. 11b), its original form has been well maintained
through extensive restoration measures performed
during the reigns of King Sejong (1397–1450) and
King Sukjong (1661–1720) (Fig. 11c). However,
when trams were introduced as a new transportation
mode during the Japanese colonial era, the city walls
were heavily damaged. Even after Korean
independence, rapid industrialization led to frequent
damage to the walls. Fortunately, after the 1970s, the
Seoul City Wall was gradually restored to its original
form as repairing project of the walls to promote
national pride. Furthermore, it has been recently listed
on the tentative UNESCO World Heritage List
(2012), achieving magnificent results.
Based on the results of previous studies, pinkish
granite (approximately 80%), leucocratic granite
(approximately 5%), gneiss (approximately 3%), and
dark red granite (approximately 2%) were mainly
used for constructing the Soul City Wall (Fig. 11d),
whereas small amounts of fine-grained granite and
aplite were also added (Lee et al., 2013). The various
material characteristics are closely related to
geological characteristics of the rocks adjacent to the
City Wall rather than other rocks intended for use by
the technician in charge of its construction. This
occurred because the City Wall reflects the political
intention of Joseon Dynasty, in which a large amount
of stone was required just after the national
foundation, unlike other heritages such as the Angkor
of Cambodia for which stone was supplied from a
long distance (Uchida and Shimoda, 2013).
In particular, these features are verified in that
rock properties of the early Joseon period was mainly
supplied from inner four mountains adjacent to the
City Wall, whereas a large amount of construction
stone was supplied from a fixed quarry outside the
City Wall after the middle Joseon period (Fig. 11e).
Thus, material authenticity of the Seoul City Wall can
be identified by examining the diversity of material
distribution and changes in provenacne according to
period and location. These criteria are also expected
to be applied as basic data for selecting the same rock
for future restoration (Lee et al., 2013).
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Figure 11: (a) General map of Seoul City Wall published by Seoul Metropolitan Government (2014). (b) Photograph of
Sungnyemun Gate and its vicinity in early 1904 (Photographer : George Rose; Collection of Cha Sang-sun, head of
Stereoscope). (c) Different techniques used to construct the wall during the reigns of King Sejong and King Sukjong. (d)
Pinkish granite used as the main rock material for Seoul City Wall. (e) Ancient quarrying trace found in places for provenance
investigation. (Lee et al., 2013).
3.9 Seokbinggo (Stone Ice Storage)
(the 18
th
century)
Seokbinggo is Stone Ice Storage to store ice collected
in winter to be used in summer. At present, a total of
six Seokbinggo structures, Treasure Nos. 66, 305,
310, 673, and 323 and Historical Site No. 169, are
located in Gyeongju, Andong, Changnyeong,
Hyeonpung, Cheongdo, and Yeongsan of South
Korea, respectively (Fig. 12a). All of these structures
were built in the late Joseon Dynasty and have been
maintained thus far. Seokbinggo can keep ice
collected in winter until summer because the selected
locations utilize the natural environment, and the
insulation design is effective. Thus, they are regarded
as a Korean heritage of integrated scientific technology.
For effective ice-storage, the Seokbinggo has an
arch structure in a semi-basement. Scientific design
and construction were applied by establishing
appropriate location environments, underground
space, installing vents, drains, and narrow entrances.
In particular, the arch structure transfers loads of the
upper part to the lower part to maintain durability and
maximize the internal capacity (Fig. 12b). For
efficiency of these structures, granite was selected as
the construction material (Fig. 12c). Thus, the
Seokbinggo structures are valuable cultural heritages
in that the applied scientific and technological
principles reflect the scientific excellence and
creativity of Korean ancestors (Fig. 12d).
Furthermore, it is anticipated that these techniques
can be applied in low-energy industries and can be
used to establish an eco-friendly conservational
environment system for cultural heritages (Kim and
Lee, 2013).
Conservation Studies of Korean Stone Heritages
53
Figure 12: (a) Locations of Seokbinggo in Korean peninsula. (b) Arched interior structure of the Gyeongju Seokbinggo. (c)
Polarizing microscopic image of alkali feldspar granite. (d) Schematic diagram of natural cooling effect of the Hyeonpung
Seokbinggo. (Kim and Lee, 2013).
4 CONCLUSION
In this study, dinosaur footprint fossils distributed in
the Cretaceous sedimentary rocks of the Mesozoic era
in Korea were introduced along with a brief
description of Korean stone heritages and
petroglyphs, and dolmens in the prehistoric age were
examined. Moreover, the Silla Stele in Bongpyeong-
ri and Cheomseongdae in Gyeongju of Silla Kingdom
during the period of the Three Kingdoms (BC 57 to
676) and the Five-story Stone Pagoda of the
Jeongnimsaji Temple Site, Rock-carved Triad
Buddha in Yonghyeon-ri, and Stone Pagoda in
Mireuksaji Temple Site of Baekje Kingdom (BC 18
to 666) were discussed.
For stone heritages of Unified Silla Kingdom (676
to 935), the Dabo Pagoda and Three-story Stone
Pagoda of the Bulguk Temple and the Five-Story
Stone Pagoda of the Seongjusaji Temple site were
presented. For stone heritages of the Goryeo Dynasty
(918 to 1392), the Rock-carved Buddha Statues of the
Namharisaji Temple Site, Stone Standing Maitreya
Statue of the Gwanchoksa Temple, and Five-Story
Stone Pagoda of the Magoksa Temple were
investigated. Finally, for the stone heritages of the
Joseon Dynasty (1392 to 1910), the Seoul City Wall,
Tombstone of Chungmugong Yi at the Chungryeolsa
Shrine and Seokbinggo were described.
Igneous rock accounts for the highest portion of
the rock used for establishing Korean stone heritages,
forming approximately 84% of state-designated
cultural properties. Categorization results according
to rock types indicate that granite was used most
often, 68.2% in 397 cases, followed by diorite, 8.2%
in 48 cases, and sandstone, granite gneiss, tuff, slate,
marble, and limestone at less than 4% each.
Examination of the stone heritages introduced in
this study indicates that clastic mud sedimentary rock
is used as a parent rock in dinosaur footprint fossils
and petroglyphs and that tuff, granite, and gneiss are
mainly used in dolmens. In addition, for the
Tombstone of Chungmugong Yi at the Chungryeolsa
Shrine, sandstone distributed near the area of its
placement was used.
On the contrary, despite different periods and
styles, granite was used in the Silla monument in
Bongpyeong, Cheomseongdae in Gyeongju, Five-
story Stone Pagoda of Jeongnimsaji Temple site,
Rock-carved Triad Buddha in Yonghyeon-ri, Stone
Pagoda in Mireuksaji Temple Site, Dabo Pagoda and
Three-story Stone Pagoda of the Bulguk Temple,
Five-story Stone Pagoda of the Seongjusaji Temple
site, Rock-carved Buddha Statues of the Namharisaji
Temple Site, Stone Standing Maitreya Statue of the
Gwanchoksa Temple, Five-Story Stone Pagoda of the
Magoksa Temple, the Seoul City Wall and
Seokbinggo. With regard to stone supply, rock
distributed in regions of each cultural heritage was
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used, whereas the petrological characteristics and
types of granite vary. In addition, in the Seoul City
Wall and Seokbinggo requiring a large amount of
rock, small amounts of metamorphic and sedimentary
rocks were also used.
It is generally known that the weathering and
damage degrees of stone heritages are strongly
affected by temperature and precipitation. Although
the average Korean temperature is 14°C, the
temperature increases to more than 35°C in summer
and decreases below -10°C owing to four distinct
seasons. The annual average precipitation of Korea is
nearly 1,300 mm, although it greatly differs according
to regions; rain events are generally concentrated in
summer. Lee and Chun (2013) reported the
distribution of stone heritages according to
topography and annual average temperature and
precipitation of Korea, indicating that most Korean
stone heritages are corresponded to areas of middle to
high weathering. Therefore, examination of
environmental control methods is required for
conservation considering the importance of stone
heritages exposed to the outside conditions, and
monitoring and management systems should be
established for stable conservation in the long term.
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