Teaching Students to Learn
Halvard Øysæd, Rune Andersen, Andreas Prinz and Renée Schulz
Department of Information and Communication Technology, University of Agder, Jon Lilletuns vei 9, Grimstad, Norway
Keywords: Study Strategy, Habits, ICT Supported Learning.
Abstract: The classical model of higher education studies is the sink-or-swim model, where some students are born
with certain skills or inherit them and become swimmers, whereas students without good study strategies
will not be able to keep up with the teaching in higher education and ultimately fail (they sink). This is no
longer a valid model, as it cannot handle the large amount of students enrolling despite poor study
strategies. The paper discusses how students can become swimmers in the context of higher education
through teaching them study strategy, thus enabling them to take more responsibility for their own progress.
In addition to explaining and showing examples of good study strategies, the focus is on the teaching of
good study habits and the ICT tools required for achieving good results in doing so.
1 INTRODUCTION
We have a problem.” In an article published in
August 2013, the head of the PISA program,
Andreas Schleicher, elaborates on problems in the
Norwegian school system. For too long the focus has
been on lowering the number of students in classes
instead of focusing on good teachers and the
teaching of basic skills and good study habits (NRK,
2013). Traditionally, students that choose higher
education were the best students; they already had
an understanding of which skills were necessary in
order to achieve their goals. They were the
swimmers. Not only did they have an interest for
higher education, most of them also came from
families with academic backgrounds, which in turn,
equipped them with good study skills or even an
overall study strategy from an early age. After major
changes in the education system in Norway in 1997,
a new curriculum for primary and lower secondary
education was introduced (Veiteberg, 1996). Now
everybody should take higher education, which
resulted in a high number of unqualified students
with no basic study strategy whatsoever. These
students relied on the teachers for their
accomplishments instead of taking responsibility
themselves. They were the sinkers. The result was a
changed learning environment. With a sufficient
number of motivated and autonomous students, the
few inexperienced students would be pulled up by
the other students. Currently, the situation is
reversed. This became even more apparent with the
introduction of ICT. We, as educators, are lifesavers
in this context, using most of our energy trying to
save the ones that used to sink and hope that the
swimmers will manage on their own. This image has
been looked at through surveys made by Per Einar
Garmannslund in Norwegian senior high schools
where the results shows that the level of
procrastination increases each year as well as we see
a drop of motivation (Garmannslund, 2012). There is
reason to believe that this trend manifests itself even
more as one moves up in the educational system.
The issue we address is not about saving the ones
who cannot swim and protecting the swimmers. The
issue is to look into how we can teach everyone to
swim and how to further enhance their swimming
skills as they continue the race towards their final
goal. Transferred into an educational setting that
means to teach good study habits, thus enabling
students to understand what they are doing and
continuously try to improve. It prepares students for
lifelong learning. If all students possess these skills,
studying would become easier. In order to make this
happen, we need to identify and teach study habits.
The basis for teaching study habits is of course
teaching study skills, because habits are repeated
skills. In our context, the skills are often trivial, so
we focus on how to turn skills into habits. In terms
of the brain, the main way to learn habits is through
repetition. Actions and thoughts that are repeated
will turn into habits after some time (Lally et al.,
Øysæd, H., Andersen, R., Prinz, A. and Schulz, R.
Teaching Students to Learn.
In Proceedings of the 8th International Conference on Computer Supported Education (CSEDU 2016) - Volume 2, pages 91-98
ISBN: 978-989-758-179-3
Copyright
c
2016 by SCITEPRESS Science and Technology Publications, Lda. All rights reserved
91
2010). The important thing to have in mind is that
we need to make sure the habits we teach are the
correct ones, because once they are internalized,
they will stick (Petri and Mishkin, 1994).
This paper addresses the need for a good study
strategy in general and gives suggestions on how to
teach the skills needed to acquire such a strategy, as
well as a few tools available to do so. We also take a
peak into the future and possible technical
improvements for achieving our goals.
The paper consists of six sections, where the first
is an introduction to the topic. The second section
explains why the teaching of study strategy is
crucial. In section 3, we will look deeper into study
strategies, while section 4 discusses how to teach
habits. Section 5 focuses on implementation: which
study habits to teach, how to do it, and how to
support it with ICT. Section 6 provides a summary
and our conclusions.
2 WHY DO WE WANT TO TEACH
STUDY STRATEGY?
We base our work on the idea that there are two
distinct areas of teaching and learning involved. The
first area is the classical area of content, defining the
knowledge and skills the students should acquire.
The second area is the area of method, defining
strategy and approaches to study. This meta-area can
be combined with the teaching of content, since
content has to be acquired using a method and a
method needs to be explained using a sample
content. This way, we envision a two-folded path for
the students consisting of content and method taught
in parallel and dependent on each other. As content
cannot be detached from the method, an average
progression of method is built-in to the content.
Students that have not yet acquired sufficient results
in their methods will get extra support to learn the
missing parts. This way, methods are taught with a
mastery learning approach, where students move to
the next level once they have mastered the previous
one.
2.1 Responsibility for Learning
Teaching in higher education has come a long way.
First, the challenge was to transfer knowledge from
experts to students, which meant to go to the best
experts and to learn from them. The main entity to
be handled was knowledge (content). In this
teacher-centered content-focused situation, the
teacher defines the content and the teaching method.
The teacher does not take into consideration whether
the students are actually able to learn the content.
The student is responsible for the learning. This
model is still used by many high-ranking professors
and universities (Parsons, 2015).
Based on students without sufficient study skills,
a stronger focus on teaching methods evolved
together with standardization of curriculum. The
important person in this teacher-centered student-
focused scenario is still the teacher. The teacher will
define the content, and the teaching method will be
adapted according to the students. This way, the
teacher is responsible for the learning. Currently,
many higher education institutions are based on this
understanding, in particular university colleges. The
main problem with this approach is that students are
different, while the methods remain the same.
Moreover, it is a problem that the teacher is
responsible for the learning and not the student.
In order to take care of that, it is possible to go
one step further and place the responsibility for
studies on the student. This results in a student-
centered approach where the student takes
responsibility for the learning content and the
teacher facilitates the learning through learning
activities. This approach has the same problem as
the first, which is that students are not prepared for
that approach to learning. The question is what skills
and methods the students need to be prepared for a
student-centered learning based on learning
activities. These skills must be taught before the
student can utilize them.
2.2 Individual Learners
In order to take responsibility in a student-centered
approach, students need to have a choice when it
comes to both content and method. This means that
the teaching has to be personalized. The introduction
of the computer and other digitized tools came to the
rescue, enabling students to learn in a way more
suited to the individual’s learning style. This is also
emphasized in the “Roadmap for Educational
Technology” published in 2010 (Woolf, 2010).
The use of computers can also facilitate the
learning of habits that benefit the learning process.
In an article in the Bangor Daily News in 2002,
Seymour Papert (2002) states: “My whole career in
education has been devoted to finding kinds of work
that will harness the passion of the learner to the
hard work needed to master difficult material and
acquire habits of self-discipline.”. With a more
student-centered approach, focus turns to multiple
CSEDU 2016 - 8th International Conference on Computer Supported Education
92
intelligences and different learning styles.
Acknowledging that students are different made us
understand, that in order to achieve better results,
students needed to be able to learn in ways better
suited for them.
The term multiple intelligences as introduced by
Howard Gardner in 1983, looks at differences in
cognitive abilities which in turn make us learn in
different ways (Howard, 1983). The term learning
styles, however, refers to individual differences in
the habits, preferences, or orientation towards
learning and studying (Grabner, 2012). Felder and
Silverman elaborate on how students learn in
different ways using different styles in an article
published in 1988. Their article compares students
on a number of scales pertaining to the ways they
receive and process information (Felder and
Silverman, 1988). The best approach for an educator
is to address a variety of learning styles with their
teaching plan in order to reach the largest amount of
students. In the book “Disrupting Class” it is pointed
out that students who succeed in schools today do so
not because of great teaching, but largely because
their intelligence happens to match the dominant
paradigm in use in a particular classroom
(Christensen et al., 2008). The author goes on
saying: “The need of the hour is a more student
centric model. Computer based learning holds great
promise in this context. Computer software can
enable students to learn in ways that take into
account their intelligence types and speed of
learning. Software can combine content in
customized sequences and in the process also help
teachers move towards more value adding roles.
2.3 Teaching Study Strategy
We know we need to address each student
differently. This can be done through explicitly
teaching study strategies, enabling students to learn
in their own pace, based on their own learning style.
Education in Information and Communication
Technology (ICT) is changing rapidly, and it is
essential to be able to follow new developments at
all times. This means that that the ability to learn is
an implicit learning outcome of all ICT study
programs. However, this is unaccounted for in the
description of the study, nor taken seriously in the
forming of the study. In the descriptions of IT
related studies in Norway, very few mention study
skills explicitly as learning outcomes.
It is assumed that students will learn these
learning skills along the way. Experience shows us
that this is not the case, and an explicit focus on
study strategies is needed. Experiments referred to in
the article “Motivation and Study Habits”
experiments show that students will adopt
systematic study methods when taught about them,
even if the systems are not particularly efficient
(Entwistle et al., 1974).
Generally, all these skills enable students to take
responsibility for their own learning. Many of them
will also enable people to work effectively in teams
as well as managing projects. As it turns out, the
explicit focus on study skills will not only improve
learning, but also provide the skills needed in a
changing work reality, as also acknowledged by
(Davies et al., 2011). We are moving from a fact
based hard skill system into a system where soft
skills such as teamwork, project-based work,
communication, making presentations, collaboration
and learning to learn are important factors as well.
We often refer to many of these skills as 21th
century skills (Rotherham and Willingham, 2010).
3 WHAT IS A STUDY
STRATEGY?
There are many study skills and techniques that are
essential to a student’s learning process. An overall
strategy combines these skills and techniques. In this
Table 1: Overall Study Strategy, based on article by Per Einar Garmannslund (Garmannslund, 2012).
The Main Phases in a Learning Process
(with key process and selected skills)
Plan Execute Reflect
Task analysis
Make goals
Plan
Motivation
Expectations
Goal-oriented
Attribution
Use of strategy
Self-discipline
Task oriented focus
Evaluation
Reflection
Attribution
Success
Strategy assessment
Teaching Students to Learn
93
section we take a look at the common study skills
and how we can combine these to form an overall
strategy that can be used throughout the learning
process.
Based on Self-Regulated Learning (Zimmerman,
1990) and the online study technique course (Bjørke
and Øysæd, 2011), the following skills and
techniques are essential: setting goals, making plans,
following plans, managing time, working in groups,
reflection (meta-cognition), reading techniques, self-
discipline, memory techniques, and self-evaluation.
These skills match the ones in (Landsberger, 1996),
(Burns and Sinfield, 2012) and (Rose and Nicholl,
1998).
3.1 An Overall Study Strategy (PER)
Students often use study skills in an ad-hoc way to
improve their memory, reading, time management or
goal setting. Unconsciously, every student uses a
learning strategy (Garmannslund, 2012), but a good
strategy will be conscious. The combination of the
study skills and the learning process will lead to an
overall study strategy. The key element for every
student is to find the skills that are right for them,
use them and incorporate them in an overall strategy
based on the following three phases: Plan, Execute
and Reflect as shown in table 1. We later in this
paper refer to this study strategy as PER, an
acronym derived from the different phases. Such a
strategy makes sure that assignments are approached
in the best way possible and that the chances for
failure are minimal.
By developing their ability to plan, execute and
reflect, students will learn how to learn. Each of the
three main phases has essential processes that can be
achieved using a variety of supportive skills and
techniques. The students select the skills and
techniques for each process matching their
individual learning style. The different phases do not
necessarily occur in a strict order, but to teach the
different phases it is needed to emphasize how
planning, executing and reflection work together and
that phases can have sub-phases containing more
planning, executing and reflection on a different
scale or for a more specific subject, as illustrated in
Figure 1. Once the students developed their adapted
strategy, the process starts again on the next
assignment.
Figure 1: Main Steps of Study Strategy with an example.
Students choose the skills and techniques
matching their learning style and the learning
activity at hand, based on the toolbox of their own
study skills and techniques.
However, a study strategy is more than just a
toolbox. It is a habit. To establish such a habit in all
students means to create habits for the study strategy
as a whole, and for the phases as well as for some of
the main skills and techniques (tools). The students
should establish a habit of selecting the best tools
from their toolbox based on their own way of
learning, which leads to a less difficult learning
process and ensures focus on learning. Whenever an
assignment is given, the student will know how to
attack the issue and use the required skills and
techniques from the overall strategy. John H. Yeager
(2007), Director of the Center for Character
excellence at The Culver Academies, explains the
importance of habit formation. “Habit formation
allows the student to venture beyond the world of
skills to the world of meaning and purpose.” In other
words, what you do makes sense, and you do not
have to think in order to do the right thing. It just
happens.
Of course, this ideal situation is difficult to
achieve, and has to be approached in steps. We want
to select a basic set of skills and processes that can
function as a basic toolbox that invites for adaptation
and extension. By teaching these skills and making
them habits for all students at the beginning of their
higher education, there is a better chance that they
will understand and use the overall study strategy
thus enabling them to study in a more efficient and
better way.
4 HOW TO TEACH HABITS?
Independent of study strategies, the teaching of
habits is an important issue in education, as detailed
CSEDU 2016 - 8th International Conference on Computer Supported Education
94
in (Andersen et al., 2015). Let us assume that good
study skills can, and should, be taught. A first step
would be to establish habits as learning outcomes. In
the Norwegian education system, learning outcomes
are described using the national qualification
framework (Kunnskapsdepartementet, 2011), which
again is based on Bloom’s taxonomy. This
taxonomy identifies three domains of educational
activities: the cognitive, the affective and the
psychomotor domain. For this article, the cognitive
domain is most relevant, because it relates to
categories of knowledge including Knowledge,
Comprehension, Application, Analysis, Synthesis,
and Evaluation. When it comes to the teaching of
habits, the cognitive domain seems to have little
place for mental habits. However, we have found
that mental habits should work similar to physical
habits, which are included in Bloom’s taxonomy in
the psychomotor domain as Mechanism (a skill that
has become habitual). A similar category would also
be needed in the cognitive domain in order to
capture mental habits, e.g. related to study strategy,
see also (Andersen et al., 2015).
4.1 Learning Habits
Basically, there are two ways of learning habits,
either through repetition, or through transfer.
4.1.1 Learning Habits using Repetition
Actions and thoughts that are repeated will
eventually turn into habits (Lally et al., 2010).
Teaching habits via repetition is discussed at length
in (Fogg, 2009). Fogg identifies three elements of
making habits work, motivation, ability and triggers.
Motivation is the element that describes the drive
behind the work to establish a habit, the power that
establishes the habit. Ability relates to the
possibilities to bring the habit to life, and is
generally more related to the underlying skills for
the habits. Ability is also the element most described
in Bloom’s taxonomy. Finally, Fogg claims that
there needs to be trigger to create a habit, such that
the starting of the skill is connected to something
that will enable it in reality. The trigger is the
element that starts the repetition, like a certain time
(every evening) or a certain event (at the start of
every lecture).
In terms of study strategy, the ability is often the
easiest element, as the skills needed are very basic:
reading, explaining, asking questions, finding
questions, etc. Still, some of the more intricate study
skills might need some exercise before all students
are familiar with them, for example summarizing a
lecture. Learned study skills will provide positive
reinforcement for the use of the acquired skills in
order to develop a good study strategy. In this paper,
we swiftly move over the skills since their teaching
follows the usual teaching patterns.
Motivation can be extrinsic or intrinsic. In the
extrinsic case, both negative and positive
reinforcement can be used, suggesting a
behaviouristic approach. Intrinsic motivation, where
the learning itself is the reward, is often preferable,
but as long as habits are established, the end result is
the same: The habit is established and is done so
without conscious thinking (Stone et al., 2009),
(Pink, 2011). In the behaviouristic approach, the
idea is to use (external) stimulus in order to make
students do the repetitions. Negative reinforcement
is easier to apply, but has limited success. Still, the
pressure may lead to the desired result (the habit).
On the other hand, positive reinforcement, by using
positive group pressure towards the habit as well as
teacher feedback and peer review is recommended.
Lately, gamification (Deterding, 2012) has been
pushed as a good framework to provide
reinforcement and thus enable repetition.
Finally, the trigger can be provided by the
teacher in the teaching process, or it could be
provided by a supporting system notifying the
student that the next repetition is due. This is also
related to the gamification approach discussed in the
last paragraph.
Using repetition and practice to teach habits has
a long tradition with learning by doing, as indicated
in (Andersen et al., 2015). Learning by doing as
presented in (Dewey, 1904) and (Aleven and
Koedinger, 2002) focuses on establishing patterns of
action that come about by repeated exercise in a life-
like environment. This transfers skills into habits.
Robert Schank presents an approach using GBS
(Goal-Based Scenarios) in (Schank et al., 1999). We
suggest a similar approach in section 5 when we
look into the teaching of specific skills we want to
turn into habits.
4.1.2 Learning Habits through Transfer
It is possible to avoid the tedious process of
repetition, if a similar habit is already in place. Then
the new habit is learned through transfer. Transfer of
learning is defined as something that occurs when
learning in one context enhances (positive transfer)
or undermines (negative transfer) a related
performance in another context (Perkins and
Salomon, 1992). However, the authors emphasize,
Teaching Students to Learn
95
transfer only becomes interesting as a psychological
and educational phenomenon in situations where the
transfer would not be thought of as ordinary
learning. They also show that the chance of transfer
occurring is most likely when the learning situation
is as contextualized as possible, meaning as similar
to previous practice as possible. This indicates that
students having used project management strategy or
other strategies in other contexts have a higher
chance of learning good study habits through
transfer. Transfer of learning is often connected to
intrinsic motivation and an understanding of the
relevance of the habit.
5 IMPLEMENTATION
When working on the implementation of PER, we
looked at essential skills for the students to look at
and acquire. After selecting skills that fit their own
learnings styles, we introduced a concrete way to
utilize these skills.
5.1 Selection of Skills for PER
As the main focus is on establishing the
aforementioned three phases and their underlying
processes, we need to select at least one skill for
each process. The skills are chosen as independently
as possible based on a particular learning style and
therefore beneficial for later usage in different
classes as well.
Planning phase
o Task Analysis: We have chosen the two skills
goal setting and planning using a TODO list
with action points for task analysis. The
students should set a goal according to the
SMART criteria. For the TODO list, the
students chose which study skills they want
to use on the learning activity, a timeframe
and dividing larger tasks into smaller ones.
o Motivation: The majority of students will be
motivated in the beginning of the semester
because they want to attend the program. We
do not select skills for this process, but it is
partly supported by goal setting.
Execution Phase
o Use of Strategy: Until the students have
mastered several skills it is hard to use
strategy, which is why the use of strategy is
not selected for the basic skills. The task
analysis and evaluation processes will help
getting focus on the chosen skill and how to
improve its use.
o Self-discipline: We select an important skill
for self-discipline: time logging. Time
logging is a learning activity that helps
students to stay focused on the task and that
supports self-discipline.
o Time logging also supports focus on tasks.
The same skill is used for both processes.
Reflection Phase
o Evaluation: The students use reflection by
comparing their result with their goal and
their chosen skill. Based on the outcome of
the comparison, the study strategy can be
adapted and documented using an action
plan.
Focusing and improving on the following four skills:
goal setting, TODO list, time logging and reflection,
will make the students better suited to swim in a
learning society. Repeating the use of these skills in
several learning activities will turn those skills into
habits.
For each of these skills we introduce optional
ICT tools for the students, which they can use. For
goal setting we offer the goal tracking system
42goals.com, for the making a TODO list we
propose notepad as a simple tool or the more
specialized tool trello.com. For time logging we
recommend the project management system
Jira.com or Microsoft Excel spreadsheets. Students
may use other ICT tools in addition or in exchange
to the tools we suggest.
5.2 Introducing PER for the Students
To teach the essential processes we need to create
learning activities that correspond to the skills the
students require in order to learn PER. We also have
to make the learning activities available for many
students. This indicates the need for a learning
platform.
In order to achieve our goal for teaching PER,
we have developed a simple pilot system named
Student 2.0. In this system, we have focused on the
learning activities for PER. In combination with the
Student 2.0 system, we also used regular lectures to
explain the theory of study strategies and techniques
in a blended learning environment. We are currently
implementing these methods for the students.
The students are confronted with the selected
skills in the first week of the study and later on
through the basic engineering course (TFL115). In
the first study week, the importance of study strategy
CSEDU 2016 - 8th International Conference on Computer Supported Education
96
was explained together with the general PER model
as presented in section 3. In the TFL115 course, an
incremental teaching strategy was used. The students
got an explanation of the skills, and they were given
the task to choose a traditional learning activity
(lecture, exercise, homework) in the first week to
train the study strategy approach as follows.
P (Planning Phase): The students would pick their
favourite activity, and set a goal and make a plan for
this learning activity.
E (Execution Phase): During the week, the students
would use time sheets for registering hours with
their selected tool.
R (Reflection Phase): Finally, students were
encouraged to reflect on their plan, goal and how
their execution of the plan had worked. They used
their time sheets to describe their results in the
learning activity and suggested improvements.
Both the planning and the reflection phase were
peer-reviewed by the other students using the
platform NovoEd.com.
These PER learning activities will be the same
for the students each week for one semester. By
doing this for 10 or more weeks we hope that the
students will create habits for the essential processes
in the PER strategy.
So far, more than 100 students have handed in
their plan and reflection each week for 7 weeks and
more than 80 of the students have peer assessed
more than 5 of their peer’s plans and reflections. The
exercises have been mandatory for the students.
We ran a survey similar to the one by
Garmannslund after the first week. The 167
responses show that the students lack execution
skills that are necessary for them to be able to work
on their studies efficiently. This corresponds with
the findings Garmannslund have had for kids in
senior high school mentioned in the introduction.
We are going to perform another survey at the end
of the semester to establish that our PER approach
had an impact on the student’s executions skills and
study strategies.
5.3 Future ICT Support for PER
In the pilot implementation of Student 2.0 we have
only implemented the basic learning activities for
PER. In the future, we would like to extend the
Student 2.0 project and develop a platform with
more functionality to better support both students
and teachers. Additionally, we would like to include
gamification elements in order to make it even more
motivating for the students to get started and
continue to use PER.
Apart from supporting learning activities in the
scope of PER, a future Student 2.0 system should
also contain learning objects related to PER, making
it self-contained. This also makes it natural to further
develop Student 2.0 to include videos and
documents explaining the PER phases and
processes.
It is important that we devise an ICT framework,
which can help support the teaching of a study
strategy. The main contributors should be the
students since they should be responsible for their
own progression.. Therefore, the students are the
main users with the teachers being observers with
the opportunity to supervise and to contribute in
terms of goal and task setting.
After creating a new project (which can be a
course as well as a project within a course, or a task)
students go through the three different strategy
phases. First they do the planning. In the planning
phase students define their goal and create a TODO
list. These steps are system-defined tasks that are
handled like any other task. Being active in the
system creates a log entry for the day. The students
can see when they did which activities in which
project and if they do well according to their plan.
The system will give feedback on the different
work phases the students complete, regardless if it is
a course, project or a single task. Frequent feedback
and redoing of the PER phases will provide the
needed repetition that is needed in order to create
habits. For feedback, the systems should also
provide the possibility to use peer evaluation on
goals and reflection.
Means of gamification (the use of game elements
in non-game context (Deterding et al., 2011)) will
then be used to motivate the students to use the
system more frequently. This can include gamified
feedback layers, game based structure, interaction
concepts as well as story design and flow. Hidden
achievements and encouragements can support the
effect of building skills and habits through positive
reinforcement.
6 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION
The ability to master a study strategy based on skills
suited for the individual student is important. In
order to achieve this ability we need to look into
how students learn and which skills might be the
right ones for each student. This enables them to
internalize the study strategy pattern identified
Teaching Students to Learn
97
through its three phases: planning, executing and
reflection (PER). In this paper we have looked at the
importance of a good overall study strategy. We
have identified basic skills, which make it possible
for a student to create an individual study strategy.
We have suggested how to teach these skills and
ways to work with them to the point where they go
from being basic skills to becoming habits. A good
study strategy will make studying easier as well as
include more students in the process.
The important part will be to focus on training
students how to swim from the first moment we
meet them and make sure they are able to manage on
their own from the start. Then the future work for
educators will be to perfect the swimming
techniques. When the study strategy becomes
habitual, we have finally contributed to the learning
goal we all have: teaching the students how to learn.
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